The Spanish War of Independence (1808-1814): A Turning Point in Spanish History
The Spanish War of Independence (1808-1814)
The Situation in Spain Before the War
The situation in Spain before the war was regrettable. Manuel Godoy, the favorite of the Spanish monarchy, weakened the power and image of the rulers. This led to severe economic problems and a growing political opposition. One of Godoy’s solutions was confiscation, but the trigger for the war was Napoleon’s deception.
Napoleon’s Deception and the Uprising of May 2, 1808
Napoleon met with Carlos IV, his son Ferdinand VII, and Godoy in Bayonne. There, he pressured them to resign from the Spanish Crown, promising to offer it to his brother, Joseph Bonaparte (Joseph I), who would undertake necessary reforms and strengthen the alliance with France.
Meanwhile, in Madrid, there were constant incidents between the people and French troops. This led to a popular uprising on May 2, 1808, fueled by rumors of a possible French betrayal. The uprising resulted in the deaths of many locals on the outskirts of the city. The news of the abdication in Bayonne (May 5-6) and the echo of the revolt marked the commencement of the war.
International and Civil Conflict
The war was an international conflict, involving not only Spain and France but also Portugal, which was invaded by French troops. The United Kingdom, an enemy of France, allied with Spain and played a crucial role by supporting the Spanish revolt, particularly in supplying Cádiz.
The war was also a civil war in its early stages. Napoleon’s approach was not purely invasive but sought collaboration. A portion of the population, attracted to the Enlightenment ideas he brought, supported him. However, another segment, including some enlightened figures like Jovellanos and the popular classes, opposed the French occupation. They were joined by nobles and clergy who feared potential French reforms.
Political Crisis and the Rise of New Institutions
The absence of Fernando VII, the legitimate monarch, created a power vacuum and a severe political crisis. Alternative political power structures emerged, leading to a revolutionary process. This culminated in the Cortes of Cadiz, which developed and introduced the Spanish Constitution of 1812.
Three Stages of the War
The war unfolded in three stages:
- May to October 1808: The French army struggled to dominate the Iberian Peninsula. Cities like Zaragoza and Gerona rebelled and were besieged. French troops invading Andalusia were defeated at Bailen (July 1808). Napoleon’s soldiers occupying Portugal surrendered to the British at Sintra.
- October 1808 – July 1812: Despite Napoleon’s presence, the French failed to capture Lisbon and Cadiz, which became pockets of resistance. Guerrilla warfare intensified, with makeshift crews composed of former soldiers, bandits, adventurers, and even clergy.
- July 1812 – 1814: A major Allied offensive led to the expulsion of French troops. The British, Portuguese, and Spanish were victorious at the Battle of Arapiles (Salamanca, July 1812), Vitoria, and San Marcial (Guipúzcoa) in 1813. Fernando VII returned to Spain as king after the signing of the Treaty of Valençay (December 1813).
Clash of Political Models
The war represented a clash between two political models: the French reformist model, embodied by Joseph Bonaparte, and the Spanish liberal model, which emerged during the war and culminated in the Cortes of Cadiz.
Joseph Bonaparte’s Regime and Reforms
Joseph Bonaparte’s regime in Spain was characterized by:
- Lack of Legitimacy: His rule lacked legitimacy and relied on Enlightenment principles and a Europeanized vision of Spain. He convened a meeting of Spanish notables in Bayonne to pass a new constitution, known as the Statute of Bayonne. This charter, granted by the king rather than approved by the people, aimed for moderate reformism but was never fully implemented due to the war. It established an authoritarian regime with an almost absolute monarchy, limited individual rights and economic freedoms, and Catholicism as the sole official religion. It also created a parliament representing the three estates.
- Dependence on France: Napoleon attempted to create an autonomous system in Spain, but its economic and military dependence on France hindered this goal. Nevertheless, Joseph Bonaparte implemented reforms that partially perpetuated Bourbon despotism but were difficult to apply in a country at war.
Joseph Bonaparte’s reforms included abolishing feudal rights and the Inquisition, suppressing male religious orders and military orders, dissolving most councils, and dividing the country into prefectures (territories ruled by French prefects). He continued the confiscation of property, particularly from the clergy and nobility. However, Fernando VII reversed these reforms upon his return.
Emergence of New Spanish Institutions
During the war, a new political system emerged, promoted by Spaniards who opposed Joseph Bonaparte and the institutions of the ancien regime that collaborated with him. This political revolution led to new institutions claiming to act on behalf of the king but deriving their legitimacy from the Spanish people.
Among these institutions, the most important were the juntas—local and provincial agencies composed of representatives from the military, clergy, and citizens. The need for political and military coordination led to the creation of a Supreme Junta Central in Aranjuez (September 1808). Composed mainly of reformist nobles, its most prominent figure was Jovellanos.
The Supreme Central Junta eventually established itself in Cadiz, fleeing the French army. Despite difficulties, it managed to convene the Cortes—a meeting intended to counter Joseph Bonaparte and the Statute of Bayonne. The Cortes held its first session in Cadiz in September 1810.
iz in September 1810.