The Spanish Monarchy in the 16th and 17th Centuries: From Philip II to Charles II
The Monarchy of Philip II of Spain
Philip II ascended to the throne in 1556 following the abdication of his father, Charles I. He inherited all European territories except the Holy Roman Empire. His reign also saw the maximum expansion of Spain’s American possessions, further bolstered by the union with Portugal and its colonies.
A staunch Catholic and centralist, King Philip II governed with an authoritarian hand, aided by devout secretaries. He established Madrid as the capital of Spain, strategically positioning it in the geographical center as a symbol of his centralist ideology.
His centralist approach led to conflicts with his secretary, Antonio Pérez, a proponent of regional autonomy and a political adversary. Pérez fled to the Crown of Aragon seeking protection from the chief justice, Juan de Lanuza. When Lanuza refused to hand over Pérez, Philip II ordered his execution. Pérez managed to escape to Holland, where he published the “Black Legend,” denouncing Philip II’s actions, including the alleged imprisonment and death of his son, Carlos.
Another challenge stemmed from the Moriscos in the Alpujarras, intertwined with the defense of Catholicism. Christians grew suspicious of the Moriscos’ economic practices and accused them of secretly practicing Islam. In 1566, the king issued a decree prohibiting Morisco customs. Despite attempts at negotiation, the Moriscos revolted in various parts of Spain, particularly in the Alpujarras (Granada). The uprising lasted two years before being quelled by the army of John, Philip II’s illegitimate brother.
Philip II’s staunch defense of Catholicism also led to several international conflicts:
Conflicts under Philip II’s Reign
France
The initial conflict with France culminated in a Spanish victory at the Battle of Pavia. The war continued until Philip II’s forces decisively defeated the French at the Battle of San Quintín. In gratitude for this victory, he commissioned the construction of the Monastery of San Lorenzo del Escorial.
The Ottoman Empire
The conflict with the Ottoman Empire, inherited from his father’s reign, escalated with the Ottomans reaching the gates of Vienna and the rise of Turkish piracy. Philip II formed a Holy League with the Republic of Venice and the Vatican State. The Christian fleet, under the command of Don Juan of Austria, triumphed over the Ottomans at the Battle of Lepanto in 1571, effectively ending the threat.
England
Initially amicable due to Philip II’s marriage to Mary Tudor, daughter of Henry VIII and Catherine of Aragon, relations with England deteriorated after Mary’s death. Her successor, Queen Elizabeth I, aspired to make England the dominant European power, directly challenging Philip II’s ambitions.
Elizabeth I’s support of English piracy provoked Philip II to plan an invasion of England, assembling the largest fleet ever seen, the Spanish Armada. Despite warnings about adverse weather conditions, the invasion proceeded, resulting in the Armada’s destruction.
The Netherlands
The Netherlands, with its prosperous Calvinist merchant class, sought autonomy. Philip II responded by ordering the invasion of Flanders, led by the Duke of Alba. Despite Spanish victories, the Dutch provinces ultimately formed the Union of Utrecht. Philip II eventually recognized the independence of the United Provinces of the Netherlands, which remained Protestant, while Belgium remained under Spanish control and Catholic. He appointed his daughter, Isabella Clara Eugenia, and her husband, Archduke Albert of Austria, as governors. Although they briefly lost the title of King and Queen, the region eventually reverted to Spanish control, ending the conflict.
The Reign of the Minor Habsburgs: Internal Conflicts in Spain
Philip III
Philip III inherited a substantial debt and two protracted wars from his father. This led to widespread exhaustion and a depleted royal treasury. He prioritized peace with England and the Netherlands, signing the Twelve Years’ Truce. He also maintained peace with France, established by his father before his death. Only towards the end of his reign, in support of his Austrian relatives, did Philip III enter the Thirty Years’ War (1618).
A significant event during Philip III’s reign was the expulsion of the Moriscos from Spain in 1609. Justified by alleged Morisco collaboration with the Ottoman Empire and Barbary pirates, this expulsion triggered a severe economic crisis, particularly in Valencia and Murcia, and a significant demographic decline.
Philip IV
Under Philip IV, the Duke of Olivares implemented an ambitious program with two primary objectives: administrative and tax reform, known as the “Reformation,” and a war policy aimed at restoring Spain’s prestige as a leading European power.
The extensive European wars strained the royal treasury. With Castile and America, the primary sources of income, already heavily taxed, Olivares sought to increase taxes in Portugal and Aragon. However, these kingdoms possessed their own governing bodies that controlled their finances. Olivares proposed a unified Spain under Castilian law to overcome this obstacle.
His initial strategy involved the “Union of Arms,” requiring each kingdom to contribute troops or taxes to establish a standing army. While Aragon and Valencia agreed to a tax, Catalonia refused, escalating tensions and fueling separatist movements, culminating in the Reapers’ War (1640). This conflict sparked similar uprisings in Portugal, Andalusia, Aragon, and Naples.
Charles II
Charles II‘s reign was characterized by continuity and stagnation. The kingdoms of Aragon retained and even expanded their political autonomy. Despite political instability, this period witnessed significant economic growth, particularly in the peripheral regions.
Thought and Culture in the Golden Age
The Golden Age, spanning the 16th and 17th centuries, represents the pinnacle of Spanish art and culture. Spanish mentality was deeply influenced by Catholicism, with Spain becoming a champion of the Catholic doctrines defended at the Council of Trent (1545). This period is often referred to as the art of the “Counter-Reformation.”
The strong influence of the clergy extended to philosophy, theology, political thought, literature, and art. Clergymen held prominent positions as university professors, ensuring the dominance of faith over science.
In philosophy, Francisco de Vitoria emerged as the most progressive thinker of the era, while others adhered to medieval scholasticism. Literature flourished during the Golden Age, giving the period its name, with notable figures such as Quevedo, Góngora, and Garcilaso de la Vega. The dominant artistic movement of the era was the Baroque.