The Spanish Monarchy: From Isabella and Ferdinand to the 17th Century
The Reign of the Catholic Monarchs (1469-1516)
The Dynastic Union
Isabella and Ferdinand married in 1469, uniting the Crowns of Castile and Aragon. Following the death of Henry IV, civil war erupted in Castile. The Battle of Toro in 1476 and the subsequent Treaty of Alcáçovas with Portugal secured Isabella’s recognition as Queen of Castile. The treaty also stipulated Spanish control over the African coast south of the Canary Islands. The union of Castile and Aragon was solidified with Ferdinand’s coronation as King of Aragon. Subsequent conquests included Granada, Navarre, the Canary Islands, Sardinia, and Roussillon, completing the unification of Spain.
The Conquest of the Nasrid Kingdom of Granada
The conquest of Granada, ruled by Mulhacen and later his son, was a key objective. The Castilian-Aragonese war against Granada proved crucial in developing Castile’s tax system and military capabilities. The conquest of Al-Andalus represented a victory against Muslim rule, and paved the way for further expansion into Navarre and Italy. The war concluded with the surrender of Boabdil, with significant victories at Ronda and Malaga.
Integration of the Canary Islands
The Crown of Castile, already holding sovereignty over four Canary Islands, later conquered Tenerife, Gran Canaria, and La Palma, solidifying control over the archipelago. Dynastic marriages further strengthened ties with Portugal, with Ferdinand and Isabella’s daughters marrying Portuguese King Manuel I.
Organization of the State
The Catholic Monarchs aimed to strengthen the monarchy and resolve conflicts between the crown and nobility. They reformed the treasury, reviewed noble land grants, and established the Santa Hermandad in 1476 to maintain order and collect taxes. The Santa Inquisición controlled religious matters. Two Royal Chanceries, in Valladolid and Granada, strengthened the justice system. Mayors presided over city councils and acted as local judges.
Expansion under the Catholic Monarchs
In Italy, the Crown of Aragon acquired Sardinia and Sicily through the Treaty of Barcelona, and regained Roussillon. Spanish troops under Gonzalo Fernández de Córdoba conquered Naples, incorporating it into the Spanish monarchy. In North Africa, Melilla and Oran were conquered.
The Age of Exploration and Conquest (1492-1600)
The Discovery of America
Based on the concept of a spherical Earth, Christopher Columbus presented to the Catholic Monarchs his plan to reach the Indies via a westward route. The Capitulations of Santa Fe formalized the agreement, and Columbus set sail from Palos de la Frontera on August 3, 1492. On October 12, he landed in the West Indies, marking the European discovery of the Americas. The Treaty of Tordesillas divided newly discovered lands between Spain and Portugal.
Conquest and Colonization
European powers established colonial systems in the Americas, leading to the demise of the Aztec and Inca empires. Hernán Cortés conquered Mexico, and Francisco Pizarro conquered Peru. The colonization process involved granting land and economic benefits to nobles in exchange for military service and financial support, creating tensions between the Crown and the nobility, who often exploited the indigenous population.
Government and Administration of America
New institutions were created to manage the American colonies: the Casa de Contratación controlled trade and emigration; the Consejo de Indias oversaw justice and policy. Viceroys, typically Castilian nobles, governed in Mexico and Peru. Audiencias administered justice, governors allocated land, and municipalities managed taxes and local affairs. These institutions passed to the Crown of Castile upon Ferdinand’s death.
Impact of America on Spain
Political: The allocation of new lands led to the development of international law. Spain controlled vast empires in both Europe and the Americas. Economic: The influx of gold, silver, and new crops like corn, tomatoes, and tobacco transformed the Spanish economy. Socio-Cultural: The colonization process had a devastating impact on native cultures.
The Habsburg Empire (1516-1700)
The Empire of Charles V and Internal Conflicts
Comuneros Revolt: Charles V inherited Castile, Aragon, and other territories. Castilian courts demanded certain conditions, such as respecting Castilian laws and residing in Castile, which Charles V did not meet. The Junta de Tordesillas, formed by commoners, attempted to install Queen Joanna as ruler. The revolt was crushed in 1521, and its leaders executed. Germanías Revolt: Economic crises and epidemics in Valencia triggered conflicts between nobles and workers. The revolt, starting in 1520, spread southwards, with Moors also participating. The viceroy quelled the uprising two years later.
The Hispanic Monarchy of Philip II
Philip II, son of Charles V, reigned from 1556 to 1598, establishing Madrid as the capital. His reign involved wars against the Turks and Berbers, a victory at the Battle of Lepanto, and repression of the Moriscos in Granada. He also fought France for control of Italy, winning the Battle of San Quentin. The 1588 attempt to invade England failed, and the Netherlands gained independence. The Iberian Union was achieved when Philip II became King of Portugal.
The Iberian Union
Philip II, through the Duke of Alba, invaded Portugal. In 1581, he was crowned King of Portugal, pledging to protect Portuguese privileges. The union added Portugal’s overseas possessions to the Spanish Empire. However, Portuguese dissatisfaction with Spanish rule grew. A Catalan uprising in 1640, supported by France and England, led to Portugal’s independence, formally recognized in the Treaty of Lisbon.
The Habsburg Political Model
The Habsburgs consolidated monarchical power, with nobles holding key positions in the military. Castile became the center of the empire. Councils, composed of clergy, nobles, and scholars, advised the King. Secretaries acted as intermediaries, and the Consejo de Estado held supreme authority. Magistrates controlled cities, and Chancillerías administered justice.
Economy, Society, and Religion
Economy: Bankruptcies resulted from high war costs. Agriculture suffered from unequal land distribution and outdated methods. Guilds controlled craft production. Society: High mortality rates and wars led to stagnant population growth. Religion: The Inquisition persecuted those suspected of heresy, targeting converts and enforcing religious conformity.
The Spanish Renaissance
The 15th and 16th centuries saw a revival of classical Roman ideals. Architectural examples include the Plateresque facade of the University of Salamanca, the Palace of Charles V in Granada, and the El Escorial monastery. El Greco dominated painting with religious themes.
The 17th Century: Decline and Crisis
The Validos
The validos, powerful royal favorites, wielded significant influence. Philip III’s validos included the Duke of Lerma and the Duke of Uceda, while Philip IV relied on the Count-Duke of Olivares and Luis de Haro. These nobles governed with considerable autonomy, leading to corruption and criticism.
Internal Conflicts
Political: Centralizing and decentralizing tendencies clashed. Economic: Spain experienced economic and social crises. Religious: The expulsion of the Moriscos in 1609 worsened agricultural labor shortages. Religious intolerance prevailed. Military: The Count-Duke of Olivares’ “Union of Arms” policy, aimed at sharing war costs, triggered the Crisis of 1640.
External Conflicts: The Crisis of 1640
The Count-Duke of Olivares’ policies fueled revolts in Catalonia and Portugal. Catalan peasants rebelled, killing the viceroy of Barcelona. Pau Claris, President of the Generalitat, led the rebellion and accepted French sovereignty. Philip IV regained control of Barcelona but faced continued resistance. Portugal’s rebellion, supported by France and England, led to its independence in 1640, formally recognized in 1668.
External Conflicts: Remaining Conflicts
Philip III’s reign saw a period of peace with the Twelve Years’ Truce. Conflicts resumed under Philip IV, including religious wars in Germany and the Dutch War of Independence, concluded by the Peace of Westphalia in 1648. The war with France ended with the Peace of the Pyrenees in 1659, with Spain ceding territories. Charles II’s reign witnessed French expansion, and his death triggered the War of the Spanish Succession.
Social and Economic Developments
Poor harvests, wars, and epidemics caused population decline. The expulsion of the Moriscos worsened labor shortages. War debts led to bankruptcies. The wool crisis in Castile and currency manipulation further damaged the economy. The nobility incurred debts to maintain their lifestyle, while the bourgeoisie acquired land and faced increased taxes.
Mentality and Culture in the Golden Age
The Spanish Golden Age, spanning the late 16th and mid-17th centuries, reflected the Counter-Reformation’s influence. The Church and monarchy held significant power. Intellectuals criticized societal issues. Key figures included Cervantes (Don Quixote), Lope de Vega and Calderón de la Barca (theater), Góngora and Quevedo (poetry), Velázquez, Murillo, and Zurbarán (painting), and architects who designed Madrid’s Plaza Mayor and buildings in Salamanca.