The Spanish Habsburg Dynasty: Reigns, Conflicts, and Decline (1516–1700)
The Habsburg Dynasty in Spain: An Introduction
The Catholic Monarchs had planned for their son Juan to inherit their territories. However, with his death, the crowns of Spain were transferred from the House of Trastámara to the House of Habsburg. The Spain of the Habsburgs sought to become fully a Modern State, and with Carlos V, the crowns of Castile and Aragon were definitively united.
The first Habsburg rulers, Carlos I (V of Germany) and Felipe II (known as the Austrias Mayores or Major Habsburgs), exploited the American economic possibilities. They were followed by Felipe III, Felipe IV, and Carlos II (the Austrias Menores or Minor Habsburgs), who closed the dynasty without descendants.
Carlos I of Spain, V of Germany (1516–1556)
Charles V was born in Flanders and educated in the Netherlands. Due to strategic matrimonial policies, Carlos (grandson of Ferdinand the Catholic and Maximilian of Austria) inherited vast dominions:
- From his mother, Juana la Loca: The Hispanic possessions (Castile, Aragon, Navarre, Naples, and America).
- From the House of Austria: The dominions of the Netherlands, Burgundy, Luxembourg, Austria, and Carinthia.
- From his father, Philip the Handsome: The right to the imperial throne of the Holy Roman Empire.
Internal Problems During Carlos I’s Reign
Two major revolts erupted early in his reign:
1. The Comunero Movement (1520–1521)
The main causes of this revolt in Castile were:
- Discomfort over the submission of Castilian interests to those of Flanders and the Holy Roman Empire.
- Disappointment with the new king, who was a foreigner ignorant of Spanish customs and language, and who replaced the Castilian nobility with Flemish officials.
- The increase in taxes needed to defray the expenses of Carlos’s election as emperor. Carlos V had to bribe the electors to secure the title (instead of Francis I), requiring financial support from Spain.
In response, some cities refused to pay and created a citizen militia aiming to:
- Dethrone Carlos V and return the crown to his mother, Juana la Loca.
- Strengthen the role of the kingdom through the Cortes (Parliament) against the growing power of the king.
However, the nobility supported Carlos V as they shared common interests. The revolt was defeated at Villalar by the royal forces, and its leaders (Bravo, Padilla, and Maldonado) were beheaded. One city, led by María Pacheco, resisted for another year. The direct consequence was the consolidation of authoritarian royal power.
2. The Germanías Revolt (1519–1523)
This was a rebellion of the lower classes in Valencia against the crown. They rebelled due to taxation and lack of protection, as North African Turks frequently attacked and kidnapped the population for slavery, and the local nobility refused to protect them.
The Germanías were also defeated, and the sentences were much more violent, as the objective of this rebellion was seen as destroying the established social system (which did not benefit the nobility).
External Problems During Carlos I’s Reign
Wars Against Francis I of France
They fought for control of the city-states of Italy. After numerous conflicts, the French king was ultimately defeated.
Confrontation with the Ottoman Turks
Charles V sought to defeat the Turks in the Mediterranean due to increasing piracy. Additionally, he fought them on land, notably defending Vienna when they attempted to conquer it twice.
The Lutheran Reformation
Charles V wanted to re-establish the Catholic religion throughout the Holy Roman Empire and halt the spread of Lutheranism. However, Luther allied himself with the Protestant German princes, who were united in the Schmalkaldic League. This league was initially defeated at Mühlberg (1547), but later, allied with Henry II of France, they defeated Charles V.
Following the defeat at Innsbruck, Charles V had to sign the Peace of Augsburg (1555), in which he accepted the failure of his objective and agreed that the princes could choose the religion of their population (limited to Lutheranism or Catholicism—cuius regio, eius religio).
Carlos V abdicated in 1556, believing he had failed in his most important purpose (maintaining religious unity). He proposed his brother Ferdinand of Habsburg as Emperor, and gave his son, Felipe II, the crowns of Castile and Aragon, Naples, the Netherlands, and the Philippines. He spent his last years in the Monastery of Yuste.
Felipe II: The Prudent King (1556–1598)
Felipe II was taciturn, austere, deeply religious, and fond of collecting and music. He enforced a rigid court protocol. He settled the Court permanently and the state machinery became highly complex, increasing the number of councils (ministries) to fourteen.
During his reign, Felipe sought the maintenance and expansion of the inherited empire and the staunch defense of the Catholic religion.
Internal Problems During Felipe II’s Reign
The Revolt of the Moriscos (1568–1571)
In the Alpujarras region, there was a large group of Moriscos (Muslim converts to Christianity) suspected of continuing to practice their former religion, especially since it was an isolated area with little control. The Inquisition began to persecute them, leading to a rebellion.
Don Juan of Austria (Carlos V’s illegitimate son and Felipe II’s half-brother) was tasked with defeating them, as the crown feared they were receiving support from North Africa, posing a strategic threat to Spain. The revolt was crushed, and the Moriscos were dispersed throughout Castile.
External Problems During Felipe II’s Reign
Conflict with France (Italy)
Felipe II had a war against the King of France for control of Italy, and he defeated the French at the Battle of San Quintín in 1557.
France subsequently ceased fighting these external battles to deal with its internal Wars of Religion (Huguenots vs. Catholics). Although the French kings were Catholic, many powerful nobles were Huguenots, complicating the conflict.
The St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre (1572) occurred when the French court celebrated a royal wedding and invited Huguenot nobles, resulting in a mass killing at dawn. Despite this, the Huguenots resisted, and more battles ensued. The war ended with the extinction of the Valois family. Henry IV (a Bourbon king) was forced to convert to Catholicism to govern (“Paris is well worth a Mass”). With this king, Huguenots and Catholics coexisted in France under the Edict of Nantes.
The Ottoman Turks and Lepanto
The Turks had taken control of much of the Mediterranean Sea, leading to increased piracy. Felipe organized the Holy League (an alliance between Spain, Genoa, the Papacy, and Venice) to fight the Turks. The leader of the galley fleet was Don Juan of Austria. This conflict culminated in the decisive Battle of Lepanto (1571), whose victory significantly boosted the morale of the Christian forces.
The Eighty Years’ War (War of Flanders)
Spain fought against the Netherlands (Flanders). Much of the northern Netherlands was Protestant, and they also considered the taxation unfair, leading to rebellion.
Although the conflict might have been resolved through diplomacy, the Duke of Alba, whom the king sent to address the issues, proved inflexible and declared war. Upon reaching the Netherlands, he executed many nobles, except for William of Orange.
This created major problems, and the Netherlands fought fiercely against Spain. Financing this prolonged war left Felipe II’s treasury bankrupt.
Rivalry with England
Henry VIII had created the Anglican Church. His daughter, Mary Tudor, briefly re-established Catholicism, but her sister, Elizabeth I, re-established the Act of Supremacy.
Elizabeth I had a rivalry with the Catholic Queen of Scotland, Mary, Queen of Scots (Mary Stuart). Elizabeth eventually captured Stuart and had her beheaded.
Consequently, King Felipe II sent a large fleet and army (the Tercios) to England to dethrone Elizabeth. The fleet, intended to cross the English Channel, was initially led by Álvaro de Bazán (who died before the expedition, requiring a replacement admiral). When the fleet sailed toward England, it was forced north by severe storms. They also had to fight against the Dutch forces. They were forced to sail around the British Isles, and many Spaniards died during this arduous journey due to the weather and disease.
The English propaganda famously dubbed this defeated fleet the “Invincible Armada.”
Later, Sir Francis Drake led the English fleet, known as the Counter Armada, which attempted to attack La Coruña against the Spanish forces, but the Spanish successfully repelled the attack.
Due to these continuous wars, Felipe II left Spain bankrupt, and his son inherited all his debts.
Architecture: Felipe II ordered the construction of the El Escorial palace near Madrid. Built in the Herrerian style (named after its builder, Juan de Herrera), it is characterized by its austerity, thick walls, and strong roofs, representing a transition between Renaissance and Baroque styles.
Felipe III and the Rise of the Validos (1598–1621)
The 17th century was a period of great crisis in Spain: the treasury was bankrupt, and due to the Little Ice Age and continuous wars, the population decreased.
Felipe III was a weak king who delegated his tasks to his valido (favorite or chief minister). The valido exercised the functions of a prime minister, although they did not officially hold that title. The valido was typically part of the high nobility and wielded immense power as the king’s closest confidant.
Sometimes, validos manipulated kings and exploited their privileges for personal gain, controlling the awarding of official charges and appointments.
The Duke of Lerma was Felipe III’s valido. He was corrupt and manipulative, making a fortune, notably by changing the location of the capital within Spain for personal profit.
Internal Problems During Felipe III’s Reign
The Expulsion of the Moriscos (1609)
During the Twelve Years’ Truce, the Duke of Lerma convinced the king to expel the Moriscos from Spain. The objective was partly to prevent internal rebellion and to boost public morale following the perceived humiliation of the truce. The general population approved the expulsion, but since the Moriscos were highly skilled workers, the action severely damaged the economy and contributed significantly to population decline.
External Problems During Felipe III’s Reign
The Twelve Years’ Truce (1609–1621)
As Spain desperately needed resources to continue the war in Flanders, a truce was established with the Netherlands, lasting twelve years.
The Thirty Years’ War (Began 1618)
Spain became involved in this war (starting in the 17th century), which began when the Holy Roman Emperor attempted to impose different conditions on the population of Bohemia. It quickly escalated into a major conflict of power and religion between the different European powers. Although Spain had little direct gain, it fought on the side of the Habsburg Emperor against the Protestant Union and later France.
As the Duke of Lerma’s corruption became undeniable, and the king could no longer cover up his crimes, Lerma became a Cardinal, thereby gaining immunity from secular justice.
Felipe III died in 1621 and was succeeded by his son, Felipe IV.
Felipe IV and the Count-Duke of Olivares (1621–1665)
Although Felipe IV handled some of his duties, he relied heavily on his valido, the Count-Duke of Olivares. Olivares was hard-working and intelligent, though ambitious and impulsive.
The Count-Duke of Olivares had a strong rivalry with the valido of the French King Louis XIII, Cardinal Richelieu, as both shared similar ideas regarding centralized power and national objectives.
Internal Problems During Felipe IV’s Reign
The Union of Arms and Regional Rebellions
Olivares aimed to ensure the king’s power was above the law and sought to create a unified country with all the kingdoms of Spain. He created the Union of Arms, a highly controversial plan intended to increase taxation and military contributions from all territories to finance the ongoing wars.
This policy provoked major rebellions in 1640, notably in Portugal and Catalonia (Aragon). Spain could not fight both simultaneously and chose to prioritize maintaining Catalonia. Consequently, they had to accept that Portugal became an independent kingdom.
The Count-Duke of Olivares ceased to be the king’s valido after a major mistake: he convinced the king to go to Catalonia as the main commander, hoping to enhance the king’s image. However, they lost the battle, and the king was humiliated. Felipe IV subsequently dismissed Olivares.
External Problems During Felipe IV’s Reign
The Peace of Westphalia (1648)
The Thirty Years’ War ended in 1648. The Holy Roman Empire was significantly weakened, and Spain was forced to recognize the independence of the Netherlands. This peace marked the end of the general European conflict, but Spain and France continued fighting.
War with France and the Treaty of the Pyrenees (1659)
The war between Spain and France continued until 1659 when France defeated Spain. The Spanish Tercios were decisively defeated at the Battle of Rocroi (1643), marking the beginning of Spain’s decline as a major European power, while France rose to dominance.
Carlos II: The End of the Habsburg Line (1665–1700)
While France became powerful under Louis XIV, Spain weakened. Carlos II, “El Hechizado” (The Bewitched), a sick and weak king manipulated by the nobility, came to the throne. He was the last member of the Habsburg dynasty, dying in 1700 without direct heirs.
(Note on Louis XIV’s rise: During the reign of Louis XIV, France became an absolute monarchy, where the power of the king was above the law. Louis XIV had previously fled France with his mother and his valido, Cardinal Mazarin, due to the Fronde civil war. Upon his return, he centralized the system: he controlled trusted nobles at the Palace of Versailles, appointed church positions, controlled Parliaments and Ministries, and conquered many territories.)
While Carlos II was still alive, the nobles began arguing over the succession. They proposed two main candidates: Philip of Anjou (Bourbon, grandson of Louis XIV) and Archduke Charles of Habsburg (Austrian Habsburg branch).
The War of the Spanish Succession (1701–1714)
When Carlos II died, the War of the Spanish Succession began to decide the heir. The smaller European countries feared that if Philip of Anjou governed, the union of the French and Spanish crowns would create an overwhelmingly powerful Bourbon bloc.
International Conflict (Europe)
This was an international war between France/Spain (Bourbon) and the Grand Alliance (Austria, England, and the Netherlands). When Louis XIV seemed likely to lose the war, Emperor Leopold (grandfather of Archduke Charles) died, and Charles was proclaimed Holy Roman Emperor. Since the Netherlands and England did not want another great power ruling both Austria and Spain, they decided to negotiate.
The Treaty of Utrecht (1713) established that the King of France could not also be King of Spain, preventing the union of the two crowns. Furthermore, Britain secured two strategic bases in Spain: Gibraltar and Menorca. This peace treaty ended the international war and recognized the Bourbon dynasty in Spain.
Civil War (Spain)
Within Spain, there was a civil war component. Castile supported Philip of Anjou (Bourbon) because they favored an absolute monarchy with a strong, centralized king. However, the Crown of Aragon (Aragon, Valencia, Catalonia) supported the Habsburg candidate, as the nobility did not agree with the imposition of an absolute monarchy that threatened their traditional rights (fueros).
After the war ended, Aragon continued fighting on the side of Archduke Charles but was ultimately defeated. Consequently, Philip V of Spain (Felipe de Anjou) punished these territories with the Decretos de Nueva Planta (New Foundation Decrees), which established that Aragon must adopt the law and administrative structure of Castile, thus making Spain an absolute, centralized monarchy.
The regional laws (fueros) of Aragon, Valencia, and Catalonia were eradicated, and a centralized model was established where all decisions were made in Castile, and Spanish became the official administrative language. Philip V maintained the fueros of the Basque Country and Navarre, as these regions had supported him during the conflict.