The Spanish Empire Under Charles V and Philip II
The Empire of Charles V: Internal Conflicts
The Communities of Castile
Upon the death of his maternal grandfather, Ferdinand, in 1516, Charles of Habsburg inherited the territories of Burgundy from his paternal grandmother and was crowned King of Castile and Aragon. He then traveled to the Iberian Peninsula, accompanied by Flemish counselors who occupied important positions in the Court and Church. Charles I’s attempt to impose new taxes sparked immediate protests in Castile. The Castilians demanded his presence in the kingdom and respect for Castilian laws. This discontent escalated into the uprising of the Communities of Castile (the Communards). Many cities in the central kingdom (Segovia, Toledo, Salamanca, etc.) rebelled against the monarch’s authority.
The Germanías
In 1520, the popular classes of Valencia launched an uprising known as the Germanías, taking advantage of the nobility’s absence due to the plague. The revolt quickly spread throughout the southern kingdom. The agermanats also targeted the Moors, accusing them of being submissive to the nobility and slow to react to the Crown. Although Valencia was less important than Castile to Charles V’s power, he ordered the Viceroy to quell the conflict. The rebellion, which became a direct confrontation between the agermanats and the Valencian nobility, was finally suppressed in 1522.
The Hispanic Monarchy of Philip II
Philip II, son of Emperor Charles V and Isabella of Portugal, was prepared from a young age for his role as king. After Charles I’s abdication in 1556, Philip ruled a vast empire encompassing Castile, Aragon, and other territories. In 1580, Portugal and its Afro-Asian empire were added to his domain. Under Philip II (1556-1598), Spanish hegemony reached its peak, with Madrid as the capital.
Key internal issues during Philip II’s reign included the death of Crown Prince Charles in 1568 (after being arrested for alleged involvement in a succession plot promoted by the nobility) and the influence of his secretary, Antonio Pérez. Philip’s successive marriages played a significant role in his foreign policy. Within the peninsula, he harshly repressed Moorish uprisings, such as the one in the Alpujarras region of Granada. In Europe, he clashed with France for control of Italy and faced the political and religious conflicts in the Netherlands (culminating in the independence of the United Provinces in the 17th century).
The 16th-Century Spain: Iberian Unity
Central and Local Administration
In 1581, the Portuguese Cortes proclaimed Philip II as King Philip I of Portugal. After three years, Philip secured the annexation of Lisbon. He pledged to uphold Portuguese privileges, customs, and laws and to maintain the positions of Portuguese officials. However, customs duties with Castile were abolished. This annexation united two great empires, bringing Portugal’s possessions in Brazil, Africa, and Asia under Philip’s control, creating an empire “where the sun never set.”
Spanish Hegemony and International Politics
Philip II’s reign was marked by several key international conflicts:
- Battle of St. Quentin (1557): A victory against France.
- Battle of Lepanto (1571): A naval battle against the Ottoman Empire, fought alongside Venice and the Papal States under the command of Don John of Austria.
- Dutch Revolt (1566): Triggered by riots stemming from the removal of the king, loss of power by the Flemish nobility, and heavy taxation.
- Conflict with England (1588): The launch of the Spanish Armada.
The Habsburg Political Model
Under Charles V and especially Philip II, Castile became the center of the empire. Viceroys were established in other realms and possessions (Aragon, the Indies, Italy), while Governors ruled in the Netherlands and Milan. These positions were held by high nobles or royal family members. The king was advised by Councils (a polysynodal system), which could be sectoral (e.g., finance) or territorial (e.g., Castile, Aragon, the Indies, Italy). Composed of lawyers, nobles, and high clergy, these councils had a consultative role, with the king holding ultimate authority. Charles V and Philip II handled daily affairs with trusted secretaries who acted as intermediaries between the king and the Councils. Some, like Antonio Pérez under Philip II, gained considerable influence. Magistrates, appointed by the crown, controlled the cities. In 1561, Philip II established Madrid as the capital due to its central location and environmental advantages, leading to the city’s rapid growth.