The Spanish Empire: Discoveries, Conflicts, and Political Evolution
The Discovery of America
On April 17, 1492, the Capitulations of Santa Fe were signed, a contract between the Spanish Crown and Christopher Columbus. This contract stipulated that Columbus would be appointed Admiral of the Ocean Sea, Viceroy, and Governor of any lands he discovered. He was also granted the privilege of original jurisdiction, offered a tenth of all goods acquired or discovered, and an eighth share of the profits from all ships sailing to the new lands.
On October 12, 1492, Columbus reached Guanahani, an island in the Bahamas, mistakenly believing he had arrived in Asia. The voyage was financed by Queen Isabella of Castile after the conclusion of the Granada War. Her motivations were a desire to expand the Catholic faith and economic interests. Columbus believed that by sailing west, he could reach the East, as the Earth was round. However, he died without proving this theory. It was Amerigo Vespucci who documented the discovery of a new continent, which was subsequently named America in his honor.
The discovery of new lands led to a dispute with Portugal, resolved by Pope Alexander VI in the papal bull Inter Caetera. This bull established Portugal’s influence over lands located 100 leagues west of the Azores. A year later, the Treaty of Tordesillas further defined the division, granting Portugal influence and colonization rights up to 370 leagues west of the Cape Verde Islands, with Spain holding rights beyond that point.
In the early 16th century, Spain explored and conquered the Caribbean, including the Greater and Lesser Antilles, parts of Central America, and reached the Pacific Ocean, discovered by Vasco Núñez de Balboa. This marked the beginning of the conquest of American territories. Hernán Cortés conquered the Aztec Empire, Francisco Pizarro and Diego de Almagro conquered the Inca Empire, Pedro de Mendoza founded Buenos Aires, Francisco de Orellana explored the Amazon River, Hernando de Soto explored North America, and Juan Ponce de León explored Florida. Other expeditions led to the conquest of territories that now comprise Colombia, Venezuela, Chile, and the southern Pampas of Argentina.
Furthermore, Ferdinand Magellan and Juan Sebastián Elcano completed the first circumnavigation of the globe between 1519 and 1522, confirming Columbus’s theory that the Earth was round.
The Empire of Charles V: Internal Conflicts – The Revolt of the Comuneros and the Germanías
The Habsburg dynasty came to rule Spain in the 16th century through the marriage of Joanna of Castile and Philip of Habsburg. Their son, Charles, was named King of Spain as Charles I following the death of Ferdinand II “the Catholic”. Charles envisioned an authoritarian monarchy and strengthened government institutions, giving particular importance to the role of the King’s Secretary, a trusted individual who represented him in his absence.
Born in Flanders, Charles I was crowned King in 1516 and arrived in Spain in 1517, accompanied by Flemish advisors and friends, including Adrian of Utrecht. This caused resentment among the Spanish bourgeoisie and privileged classes, who were displaced from positions of power.
The situation worsened when Charles’s grandfather, Maximilian I of Austria, Holy Roman Emperor, died, leaving Charles eligible to become Emperor. This candidacy involved significant expenses, requiring approval from the Castilian Cortes. This led to uprisings against the King, organized by the Community Boards, known as Comuneros, and led by Juan Bravo, Juan de Padilla, and Francisco Maldonado.
Charles I, determined to assert his authority, dismissed Flemish nobles from political office and replaced them with Spaniards. This resulted in the nobles siding with the King, leaving the middle class unable to withstand the royal army, led by Adrian of Utrecht in the King’s absence.
Charles I thus consolidated his authority but recognized the need to be closer to his people. He returned to Spain, learned Castilian, and imposed it as the language of diplomatic relations.
In the autumn of 1519, the Revolt of the Germanías erupted. These were associations of artisan workers. In the summer, a plague spread along the Valencian coast. Nobles were obligated to protect the people but, fearing the disease, abandoned the cities. The inhabitants organized themselves and attacked anyone they deemed responsible, even assassinating Viceroy Diego Hurtado de Mendoza. Charles I sent an army to quell the uprising, ending the conflict in 1521.
The Political Model of the Spanish Habsburgs
The Spanish Habsburgs implemented an authoritarian monarchy with absolutist tendencies, building upon the nation-state project of the Catholic Monarchs. They maintained existing government institutions (an authoritarian monarchy, the Cortes, a standing army, viceroys, and magistrates), the Consejos (councils) that served the King, a large bureaucracy headed by the Secretary, and the diplomatic corps. The Inquisition was also strengthened to enhance ideological control.
The Habsburgs ruled directly but relied on their secretaries, individuals who enjoyed the King’s utmost confidence. Under the Habsburgs, these secretaries, typically members of the nobility, often delegated their functions to others.
This authoritarian and absolutist policy was also projected onto Europe, as Charles I became ruler of a vast empire, inheriting territories from both his paternal and maternal grandparents.
Charles I envisioned a Universal Empire for Europe, united under the authority of the Pope and the Emperor, guided by Christian ideology. This idea was outdated, as the era was dominated by the rise of modern states. Moreover, the concept of Christianity advocated by the Pope was facing criticism from the Lutheran Reformation initiated by Martin Luther.
Despite this, the Habsburgs pursued political hegemony and largely achieved it, maintaining their supremacy until 1621. Their ultimate failure was marked by the Peace of Westphalia (1648) and the Treaty of the Pyrenees (1659), which ended the Thirty Years’ War and led to the independence of the Netherlands and the shift of political hegemony to France.
The Iberian Union
In 1578, the young King of Portugal, Sebastian, son of Philip II’s sister Joan, died at the Battle of Alcácer Quibir (Morocco). He was succeeded by his uncle, Cardinal-Infante Henry, who died two years later without an heir. The claimants to the Portuguese throne were two grandsons of Manuel I “the Fortunate”: António, Prior of Crato, an illegitimate grandson favored by the masses and lower clergy, and Philip II of Spain, supported by the nobility and higher clergy. After a brief war, Philip II emerged victorious and was recognized as King of Portugal as Philip I by the Cortes of Tomar in 1581.
This achieved the Iberian Union envisioned by the Catholic Monarchs.
To secure his position, Philip II spent two years in Portugal and attempted to appease his new subjects. He maintained the independence of Portuguese institutions and granted political positions to the nobility. However, the masses never fully accepted him.
Spain Under the Later Spanish Habsburgs: Internal Conflicts
Philip II left his son, Philip III, a substantial debt and two protracted wars. This resulted in widespread exhaustion and a dire situation for the Royal Treasury. Philip III sought peace with Spain’s traditional enemies, England and the Netherlands, signing the Twelve Years’ Truce. He also ended the conflict with France, as his father had done before his death. Only at the end of his reign, to assist his Austrian relatives, did Philip III enter the Thirty Years’ War (1618).
The most significant action taken during Philip III’s reign was the expulsion of the Moriscos from Spain in 1609. The justification was that Morisco communities might be maintaining contact with the Ottoman Empire and the Barbary pirates. This expulsion triggered a severe economic crisis due to the collapse of agriculture in Valencia and Murcia, as well as a demographic crisis.
Philip IV‘s reign was dominated by the Count-Duke of Olivares, who implemented an ambitious government program with two main objectives: administrative and fiscal reform, known as the Great Reform, and a war policy aimed at restoring the prestige of the Spanish monarchy as a leading European and global power.
The second objective required substantial expenditure, and European wars doubled budgets. Consequently, the Royal Treasury’s situation needed improvement. Castile and America, the primary sources of income, were depleted, necessitating increased taxes on Portugal and Aragon. However, these kingdoms had their own Cortes, which controlled their own finances. Olivares proposed a policy of uniformity for Spain by extending Castilian law to these territories.
The first step was the Union of Arms project, which aimed to require all kingdoms to contribute men or taxes to create a standing army for wars. The Cortes of Aragon and Valencia agreed to a tax, but the Catalans refused any contribution. This led to heightened tensions and separatist movements, such as the Reapers’ War (1640). This conflict was replicated in Portugal, Andalusia, Aragon, and Naples.
Charles II‘s reign was characterized by continuity and stagnation. However, the kingdoms of Aragon maintained and even increased their political sovereignty. This resulted in a period of political instability, although it was accompanied by economic prosperity, particularly in peripheral regions.