The Spanish Civil War: Origins, Factions, and Global Intervention
The 1936 Coup d’État and the Start of the Civil War
The military uprising began on July 17th in Melilla, extending across the Iberian Peninsula on the 18th and 19th. The government, led by Prime Minister Casares Quiroga, reacted slowly and resigned. Diego Martínez Barrio was briefly appointed but resigned due to lack of support. Finally, on July 19th, José Giral formed a new government and made the crucial decision to deliver weapons to civilians. Citizens immediately engaged in the defense of the Republic.
The military coup was planned as a coordinated uprising across various military garrisons. The rebels intended to seize the levers of government with the help of committed civil society groups. The coup initially succeeded in Spain’s most backward and conservative regions, specifically the interior, Galicia, and parts of Andalusia (the Guadalquivir region, including Cádiz, Seville, and Huelva)—areas that were less industrialized.
The rebellion, initially led by General Mola from Pamplona, sought to establish a military dictatorship, eliminate the risk of revolution, and execute a “systematic and violent operation cleaning” of all organizations or individuals perceived as a threat to traditional Spanish values.
Consolidation of the Two Sides
The failure of the coup to immediately seize control of the entire country led to the consolidation of two distinct factions:
The Nationalist Rebels (Insurgents)
- Composition: Military officers, conservative landowners, monarchists, members of the far-right, and traditionalist Catholics.
- Ideology: Those who opposed the rise of the popular and working classes. They were supported by and inspired by Fascism, often copying its forms and methods.
The Loyalists (Republicans)
- Composition: The working class, progressive bourgeoisie, and parts of the standing army.
- Affiliated Organizations: Republican parties, socialists, communists, and anarchists.
Significance of the Conflict
In Europe, the Spanish Civil War was widely understood as a clash between Fascism and Liberal Democracy. However, domestically, it represented a fundamental conflict:
It was a confrontation between the old ruling groups of the Restoration period (whose primary weapon was the army) and the emerging groups of workers and the bourgeoisie, who sought to establish a truly progressive and democratic political system.
The privileged classes chose to abandon legal and parliamentary means to support the coup. They utilized violence as a method to prevent the political participation and incorporation of the working classes. Crucially, the success of the coup would ensure the maintenance of an abundant, cheap, submissive, and depoliticized working population.
The Internationalization of the Conflict
The Spanish Civil War garnered immense international public interest. The conflict quickly became a proxy battleground for competing global ideologies.
International Support for the Republic
Proponents of the democratic system, workers’ parties, and the USSR supported the Republican government. The defense of the Republic’s values was equated with the defense of democratic values globally. This support manifested primarily through:
- Soviet Aid: Assistance from the USSR was paid for in gold, requiring the Republican government to accept Soviet military advisers and political influence, often channeled through the Communist Party (PC).
- International Brigades: Mobilizing more than sixty thousand volunteers, these brigades came to Spain to assist in the defense of democratic values, representing a powerful international expression of anti-fascist solidarity.
The Non-Intervention Policy
In contrast, Germany and Italy supported the Nationalist rebels from the outset, as did reactionary Catholics and the Papacy. However, the response of the European democratic states was profoundly disappointing.
In August 1936, the Committee of Non-Intervention was formed. This policy sought to isolate the conflict and prevent external intervention. In reality, this constituted a huge injustice to the Republic, as it denied the legitimate government the right to acquire weapons and defend itself against the revolt of its own army.
Axis Support for the Nationalists
Italian and German aid to the rebels was continuous and powerful. They viewed the Spanish conflict as a crucial opportunity for military testing and training. This aid included sending troops and implementing significant military actions, most notably the involvement of the German Condor Legion in the devastating bombing of the civilian population of Guernica.