The Spanish Civil War: From Uprising to Totalitarian State
The Spanish Civil War (1936-1939)
This war was a tragic and pivotal moment in 20th-century Spain. A clash between traditionalist and progressive forces culminated in a devastating civil war. Both the rebels, led by General Franco, and the Republicans sought foreign aid, internationalizing the conflict.
The Outbreak of the Civil War
On June 17, 1936, the military commander of the Spanish Foreign Legion initiated an uprising against the Republic. General Franco, leading the Army of Africa, crossed from Morocco to mainland Spain. The uprising, while successful in some areas, failed in key regions where leftist and worker forces held sway. Within a week, the country was divided, embroiled in a civil war.
The rebel faction comprised those opposed to the Republic, aligning with fascist ideologies and identifying as nationalist and Catholic.
Conversely, the Republican side consisted of working classes, farmers, and those loyal to the existing government.
The Spanish Civil War had significant international implications, viewed as a clash between democratic forces and rising fascist regimes.
Progressive democracies, workers’ parties worldwide, and the USSR supported the Republic. In contrast, France, Germany, Italy, and the UK saw Franco’s rise as a bulwark against the spread of communism.
Both sides sought international support. Democratic governments formed a Non-Intervention Committee, a policy that arguably disadvantaged the Republic and contributed to its eventual defeat.
The Republican government, needing to purchase weapons and resources, sent Spain’s gold reserves to the Soviet Union under Prime Minister Caballero to pay for arms.
The International Brigades provided crucial troop support to the Republic. However, the rebels ultimately received more substantial foreign aid.
The Republican Zone: Revolution Contained
To counter the revolt, the Republican government under Giral armed the militias of political parties and trade unions. This led to a weakening of state power and the rise of revolutionary organizations, including councils and committees that took on public policy roles.
In Republican-held territory, the uprising sparked a revolutionary climate. Social revolution manifested in the collectivization of industrial and agricultural property, particularly in Andalusia, Valencia, and Aragon. Street violence, driven by radical anarcho-syndicalists and the POUM (Workers’ Party of Marxist Unification), added to the turmoil.
On September 5, 1936, Largo Caballero, secretary general of the UGT (General Union of Workers), formed a new government comprising Republicans, Socialists, and, for the first time, Communists. Four syndicalists also joined the cabinet. Caballero’s aim was a broad anti-fascist alliance and the creation of a Popular Army.
However, military setbacks reignited tensions within the Republican ranks. One faction, including Republicans, Communists, and some Socialists, favored collaboration with the middle classes and a strong state. Another, comprising anarchists and the POUM, sought to deepen the revolutionary transformations. These internal conflicts weakened Caballero’s government.
Following Caballero’s resignation, Juan Negrín formed a new Socialist government. Prieto became Minister of War, and the new cabinet prioritized the war effort. The government relocated from Valencia to Barcelona. Facing Franco’s advancing forces, the government attempted to negotiate an end to the war, but Franco demanded unconditional surrender.
In late February 1939, Great Britain and France recognized Franco’s government. President Azaña resigned, signaling the Republic’s imminent collapse.
The Rebel Zone: The Creation of a Totalitarian State
The death of General Sanjurjo, the initial leader of the coup, and the escalation into war created a leadership vacuum. A National Defense Board, dominated by the military, was established to govern rebel-held territory. It banned all political parties, suspended the constitution, and halted land reform. On September 30, 1936, Franco was chosen as the leader of the uprising, and on October 1, he became head of state and generalissimo of the armed forces.
By October 1936, a unified military command was in place. In 1937, Franco created a single party, the Falange Española Tradicionalista y de las JONS. Franco became the national leader of this party and effectively the dictator of Spain. Religious, political, and press freedoms were suppressed, the death penalty was reinstated, and systematic repression targeted anyone suspected of leftist sympathies.