The Spanish Civil War: From Uprising to Aftermath
The Spanish Civil War: A Concise History
The Uprising and Its Aftermath
On July 18, 1936, a military uprising against the Second Spanish Republic commenced, aiming to quell perceived anarchy and prevent a communist revolution. The failure of the initial coup divided Spain into two factions: the Nationalists (often referred to as “blues” or fascists) and the Republicans (often called “reds” or communists). The uprising, initiated on July 17 and 18 in Melilla, saw General Francisco Franco take control of the Army of Africa. Military leaders loyal to the Republic were executed for rebellion. The uprising spread throughout the country, succeeding primarily in rural areas, while facing resistance in Barcelona and Madrid. The coup’s success or failure hinged on the speed and coordination of the Nationalist forces and the reaction of Republican loyalists and popular militias.
Prime Minister Casares Quiroga’s initial response, including decrees to stop the rebels and dissolve the military, proved ineffective. His refusal to arm civilian militias further hampered the Republican response. Quiroga resigned, followed by his successor Martínez Barrio, who failed to negotiate a settlement. On July 19, Manuel Azaña appointed José Giral as the new Prime Minister.
The Nationalists framed the uprising as a spontaneous, popular movement defending religion, national unity, and private property. Conversely, the Republic and the Popular Front viewed it as a rebellion against the legally established government and its reforms.
The uprising split the army, with roughly half remaining loyal to the Republic. However, the Nationalist side possessed more experienced divisions. Republicans blockaded the Strait of Gibraltar to prevent the Army of Africa from reaching mainland Spain. The Civil Guard, the Church, and some landowners supported the Nationalists, while the Assault Guards and the working classes largely sided with the Republicans.
The Course of the War
The Spanish Civil War, a precursor to World War II, became a complex ideological conflict between fascism and democracy, involving all sectors of Spanish society. It combined modern and archaic forms of combat, from tank warfare to land occupation and urban shelling.
Internationally, the war became a proxy conflict between totalitarian regimes and democracies. A policy of non-intervention, initiated by France and Britain and joined by over thirty other countries, proved ineffective. Germany, Italy, and Portugal aided the Nationalists with military support (including the Condor Legion, the Black Shirts, and the Viriatos), receiving raw materials concessions in return. France, Britain, Mexico, the Soviet Union, and the International Brigades supported the Republican side with volunteers and smuggled arms.
The war unfolded in five stages: the initial column war (July-October 1936), the fight for Madrid (November 1936-March 1937), the northern campaign and the Republican counteroffensive (April-October 1937), Nationalist advances and major Republican offensives (November 1937-November 1938), and the fall of Catalonia and the end of the war (December 1938-April 1939).
The Republican side suffered initial defeats and territorial losses. The formation of the Mixed Brigades marked a turning point, but they were not fully prepared until the siege of Madrid. Despite showing strength in the battles of Teruel and the Ebro, the Republicans lacked the initiative for a decisive victory.
Political Developments
The uprising resulted in a power vacuum on both sides. Following the death of General Sanjurjo, authority on the Nationalist side remained with the generals, leading to an authoritarian regime under Franco’s leadership from October 1, 1936.
On the Republican side, the government struggled to maintain authority. In Catalonia, the Anti-Fascist Militia Committee, controlled by the CNT (National Confederation of Labor), initially directed the war effort, but its decisions were later ratified by the government.
The war unleashed widespread violence and repression on both sides. Nationalist repression was state-organized and aimed at eliminating resistance. Republican atrocities were often carried out by local committees, particularly in the early months of the war.
Republican Governments
- José Giral (July 19-September 4, 1936): A left-wing Republican government unable to cope with the fragmentation of state power.
- Francisco Largo Caballero (September 5, 1936-May 17, 1937): Focused on restoring state authority, coordinating policy, and reorganizing the military. The creation of the People’s Army and state economic intervention led to conflicts with anarchist and communist factions, culminating in the Barcelona May Days. The CNT’s influence waned, the POUM (Workers’ Party of Marxist Unification) was suppressed, and the PCE (Communist Party of Spain) gained prominence.
- Juan Negrín (May 17, 1937-March 5, 1939): A socialist government of national unity supported by the Communist Party and Soviet aid. Negrín focused on centralizing resources, organizing the war economy, and forming the Popular Army. His 13 Points Programme, aimed at negotiating peace, was rejected by Franco. Negrín’s continued resistance, hoping for a wider European conflict, ultimately failed, leading to the coup of Colonel Casado and the end of the war.
Nationalist Spain
Nationalist Spain, under Franco, concentrated political power and established a new state model based on the Army, the Church, and the Falange. This process unfolded in four phases:
- The National Defense Board: Suspended the Constitution, declared martial law, established a war economy, and propagated the Nationalist cause.
- Franco’s Leadership: On October 1, 1936, Franco was appointed Head of State and Generalissimo, establishing a personal dictatorship. The National Defense Board was replaced by the Technical State Board.
- Establishment of a Single Party: On April 20, 1937, the Falange and the Traditionalist Communion were merged into the FET y de las JONS (Traditionalist Spanish Phalanx of the Assemblies of the National-Syndicalist Offensive).
- Franco’s First Government: Consolidated power through the Central Administration Law of the State and implemented the Fundamental Laws, the Fuero del Trabajo (Labor Charter), and the Law of Political Responsibilities.
The Nationalist regime’s social policies contrasted sharply with the revolutionary process in the Republican zone.