The Spanish Civil War: Causes, Conflicts, and Consequences
The Spanish Civil War: A Nation Divided (1936-1939)
After the Popular Front victory in February 1936, the power bloc, unhappy with the revival of reformism after two years of stagnation, contacted the right sector of the army to plan a coup d’état. The military conspirators, led by General Emilio Mola, began plotting the coup, distributing and planning actions: Mola would rise in Pamplona, General Manuel Goded Llopis in the Balearic Islands, and General Francisco Franco in the Canary Islands. They would detain the authorities, outlaw the Popular Front, and form a Military Directory.
On July 18, Franco rose in the Canary Islands. He moved to Morocco with the help of German aircraft and then to the peninsula with the Army of Africa. The military uprisings succeeded in some areas without much resistance (Galicia, Navarre) and in other cities, thanks to the skillful performance of military leaders (such as General Gonzalo Queipo de Llano in Seville). However, the coup failed in Madrid and Barcelona, which shocked the government. Santiago Casares Quiroga, President of the Government at that time, decided not to deliver arms to the militias to avoid a social revolution, but under pressure, he resigned on July 19. He was replaced by Diego Martínez Barrio, who attempted to negotiate peace but failed. Manuel Azaña then appointed José Giral, who delivered arms to the militias, with the danger that this entailed.
Two Warring Sides
Soon, the two warring sides were configured. The rebels, or Nationalists, were supported by large landowners, the bourgeoisie, predominantly Catholic monarchists, the Falange, and the CEDA. The Church mostly opted for this side, seeing the uprising as a crusade against Marxism. The Republicans were represented by the middle bourgeoisie and the forces of the Popular Front. They had the support of the Assault Guard, the Navy, and the Air Force. They saw the uprising as a coup against the current legislation.
A Precedent to World War II
The Spanish Civil War can be considered a precedent to World War II, not only due to its chronological proximity but also because of a series of characteristic lines. It was an ideological war that emerged as a battle between Christianity and communism, fascism and democracy. It was a war that showed signs of class struggle, as it pitted proletarians against employers, workers against the bourgeoisie. It affected the entire population. The army was the backbone of the Nationalist side, while on the Republican side, it broke down into militias. Women participated actively in the rear and, on the Republican side, also on the front. It was a war that alternated between conventional methods and technology (guerrilla warfare, blockades) and modern methods (bombings, tanks).
International Context and Intervention
The Civil War took place in a broader international context, with the rise of fascism in Italy and Germany and communism in the USSR. In 1936, England promoted the Non-Intervention Committee, whereby its signatories prohibited the supply of vital resources, men, and war materials to any faction. Although France and England initially proposed to comply, Italy and Germany showed overt support for the insurgent camp, leading to the Committee’s crisis.
- Germany provided Franco with military equipment. In addition to transporting troops from Morocco, the Condor Legion carried out significant bombings (such as Guernica).
- Italy, under Mussolini, sent volunteers (Black Shirts) and assisted the insurgents with weapons and technology.
- Portugal, under the dictatorship of Salazar, sent 10,000 volunteers and supplies across the border.
Support for the Republicans was lower:
- France provided them with food and weapons.
- The USSR sent military specialists, aircraft, and tanks.
- England failed to intervene in Spanish affairs.
- Mexico supported the Republicans.
Up to 60,000 men from the International Brigades arrived in Spain, encouraged by the Communist International. They played a symbolic role, and leading politicians and intellectuals participated (such as Ernest Hemingway and George Orwell), but they had to retreat due to international pressure.
Phases of the War
The war took place in several phases. The first, the “war of columns,” was characterized by the formation of columns on both sides. However, on the Republican side, the army broke up into blocks with unorganized militia performances. After the struggle for Madrid, which, despite the superiority of the rebels, was hampered by the militia, Mola failed to take the capital. In this situation, the rebels headed north (Asturias and the Basque Country), rich in raw materials, anticipating a long war. After mastering these regions, the Republicans, united by the PCE, launched major counter-offensives, such as the Battle of the Ebro, but they failed, and Franco took Catalonia and Levante. After Madrid fell, where the defending forces were divided, the war ended on April 1, 1939.
Repression and Political Developments
During the war, harsh repression was carried out. On the Republican side, the persecution and slaughter of religious figures and the Paracuellos massacres stand out. On the Nationalist side, repression was planned and sought to sow a climate of terror. The repression in Badajoz, Málaga, and the post-war repression are particularly notable.
On the Republican side, there were several governments. The Giral government ended on September 5, 1936, which was supported by left-wing socialists and republicans. During his government, the question arose of what came first: revolution or war. The Socialists and Communists advocated that they should first win the war, while the anarchists and Trotskyists (POUM) defended the revolution as a way to win the war. The conflicts between them provoked a civil war in Barcelona in May 1937, which led to the resignation of Largo Caballero. Under Juan Negrín, from May 17, resistance was unified under the PCE, following the refusal of the rebels to accept the proposed thirteen points for peace. During this time, major offensives were launched against the Republicans, and important economic plans were implemented. A major social revolution was carried out. In Catalonia, it was in the hands of the government, but in Andalusia, Aragon, and Levante, collectivization had a popular character.
On the Nationalist side, the military leaders formed the National Defense Council, which outlawed the authorities and unified command under Franco, who was propelled by his military successes over Sanjurjo, Primo de Rivera, and Mola. They unified the permitted political parties (Carlists and Falangists) into the FET-JONS and subordinated them to Franco, who was also named Generalissimo of all armies. This camp carried out counter-reforms, abolishing Azaña’s reforms, legalizing the death penalty, restoring the Society of Jesus, and establishing communion between the new regime and the Church, using measures parallel to the agrarian revolution but in reverse.
Aftermath
After the end of the war, Franco was established as the head of an authoritarian state, abolishing freedoms and beginning a long dictatorship. On April 1, 1939, Franco signed the last war dispatch.