The Spanish Civil War and the Franco Regime
The Spanish Civil War (1936-1939)
Military Evolution and High Morale
Military professionalism was predominantly on the Nationalist side. While disagreements existed within both factions, the Republican side experienced greater internal division. From the outset, the Nationalist military displayed a strong initiative. The Civil War unfolded in five stages:
1. Nationalist Union and Conquest of Extremadura (July 1936 – October 1936)
Franco moved his troops to secure the Strait of Gibraltar with German assistance (Legion Condor). The Republican side controlled the navy. The Republicans committed a massacre in Badajoz. Subsequently, the Nationalists advanced to Badajoz to unite the two Nationalist-held areas. Around September 1936, they proceeded to conquer Madrid. However, 2,000 Nationalist soldiers were besieged by Republicans in the Alcázar of Toledo, diverting Franco’s attention. The Republicans laid siege to the Alcázar for many days, employing dynamite supplied by Asturian miners, but the Nationalists refused to surrender. Franco eventually arrived and relieved the siege, then resumed his advance towards Madrid.
2. Battles of Madrid
Franco attempted to attack Madrid from the ground to avoid destroying the city. The assault began with the Battle of Ciudad Universitaria, but the Republican side was bolstered by the arrival of the International Brigades. The slogan “No Pasarán” (They Shall Not Pass) became a symbol of Republican resistance in Madrid. Franco then attempted a southern attack with the Battle of Jarama, which also failed. His third attack targeted the east, where the Nationalists, reinforced by Italians, launched an offensive but were unsuccessful. Under this constant threat, the Republican government relocated to Valencia, leaving General Miaja in command of Madrid. The Republicans evacuated artwork from the Prado Museum to protect it.
3. Conquest of the North (March 1937 – October 1937)
The northern offensive began in Bilbao, targeting the industrial region known as the Iron Belt. The conquest of Biscay marked the first major Nationalist victory in the north. They then advanced towards Asturias and Cantabria. The Republicans launched offensives at Brunete and Belchite to divert Nationalist forces from the north. The bombing of Guernica by the German air force, which leveled the town, served as a demonstration of their military power on the international stage.
4. Battles of Aragon (November 1937 – November 1938)
This period proved decisive in determining the war’s outcome. Two major battles took place:
a) Teruel (Winter 1937-1938)
The Nationalists aimed to divide the Republican zone in two by capturing Teruel and advancing towards Castellón de la Plana. Teruel changed hands multiple times before finally falling to the Nationalists in April 1938, effectively splitting the Republican territory.
b) Battle of the Ebro (July 1938 – November 1938)
Following the Nationalist advance, the Republicans launched a counteroffensive near Valencia, leading to the Battle of the Ebro. The battle raged from July to November 1938. Republicans crossed the river and penetrated 40km into Nationalist territory. Franco responded with air and infantry attacks, inflicting heavy casualties on the Republicans, who were forced to retreat across the Ebro and into Catalonia.
5. Conquest of Catalonia and the Center (December 1938 – March 1939)
As the Nationalists rapidly advanced, refugees and Republican troops retreated into Catalonia and France. Approximately 500,000 people fled. Barcelona surrendered on January 26, 1939. The Republicans destroyed bridges as they retreated. The Nationalist occupation of central Spain concluded in March 1939 when Colonel Casado surrendered. On April 1, 1939, Franco declared the war over.
Autarky (1939-1951)
Economic Autarky
The initial phase of Franco’s regime was characterized by economic autarky (self-sufficiency) and international isolation. This period had two key aspects:
- Economic closure
- International isolation
Spain faced a severe economic crisis and lacked foreign trade.
Spanish Economy
1. Effects of the Civil War
The war’s devastation necessitated widespread reconstruction. The loss of 300,000 lives, many of them young people, hindered the country’s growth.
2. World War II
The Second World War further exacerbated Spain’s economic woes.
3. Fascist Ideology
The regime’s ideology, closely aligned with fascism and nationalism, contributed to the economic difficulties. This led to the implementation of rationing, with food distributed through ration books. People resorted to the black market (known as “estraperlo“) to obtain goods, despite higher prices. The black market was supplied by farmers who sold their produce, particularly in Barcelona.
State Intervention
The state exerted strong control over the economy, purchasing agricultural products from farmers at low prices and imposing mandatory sales quotas. State-owned enterprises dominated key industries (e.g., telephone, CAMPSA). The economic situation resulted in a decline in the Spanish standard of living and productivity due to shortages of machinery, fuel, and raw materials (e.g., cotton). The “gasógeno” (wood gas generator) was invented as an alternative fuel source, and the Biscúter microcar became a popular mode of transportation.
International Relations
Spain’s international relations during this period were complex and can be divided into four stages:
1. 1939-1942: Ties with the Axis Powers
Spain initially aligned with Germany and Italy during World War II but remained officially neutral due to its lack of preparedness and Hitler’s rejection of Franco’s conditions. In 1941, Spain sent the Blue Division to fight alongside the Germans against the Soviet Union, marking a shift towards non-belligerent support for the Axis.
2. 1943-1945: Disengagement from the Axis
As the tide of the war turned against the Axis, Spain began to distance itself from Germany and Italy, seeking closer ties with Britain and the United States. The Spanish press adopted a more neutral stance, and Franco removed some Falangist members from his government, including Foreign Minister Serrano Suñer, who was replaced by a pro-British figure. Franco also emphasized Spain’s Catholic identity.
3. 1945-1953: International Isolation
Following World War II, Britain, France, and the United States, now the dominant powers, imposed international isolation on Spain to prevent the spread of communism. Most foreign ambassadors were withdrawn from Madrid, with only Portugal and Argentina maintaining diplomatic relations. The Maquis, Spanish guerrilla fighters, infiltrated across the Pyrenees to resist Franco’s regime. In 1944, they briefly occupied the Aran Valley. By 1949, Maquis activity had significantly declined.
4. 1953-…: International Normalization
Spain’s international relations began to normalize, primarily through the influence of the United States. Agreements were reached that integrated Spain into the Western bloc, leading to the restoration of diplomatic ties with capitalist countries. Spain granted the United States access to four military bases (Zaragoza, Madrid, and two in Cádiz). In 1955, Spain joined the United Nations.