The Spanish Civil War and the Early Francoist Dictatorship (1936-1959)
The Spanish Civil War (1936-1939)
The Outbreak and Development of the War
The Spanish Civil War erupted in 1936, leading to the destruction of the Second Republic’s state structures. The Nationalist side, led by General Francisco Franco, established an authoritarian and militarized state, while the Republican government lost control to workers’ committees.
Both sides engaged in severe repression. The Nationalists targeted militant workers and peasants, with uncontrolled violence perpetrated by Falangist gunmen. In Republican areas, the clergy and wealthy classes faced persecution. Primo de Rivera was tried and executed. After initial chaos, the government gradually regained control.
Nationalist Victory and the End of the War
The Nationalists’ early success can be attributed to the “air bridge” established with German and Italian aircraft, which facilitated the swift return of the Army of Africa to the peninsula. The Legionnaires and regular troops initiated a rapid advance towards Madrid, with General Yagüe diverting to capture Badajoz, followed by a brutal crackdown.
The “liberation of the Fortress” served as a significant propaganda victory for Franco. Meanwhile, Mola seized Irun and San Sebastian, isolating the Basque Country from the French border.
Between spring and autumn of 1937, the Nationalists conquered the Basque Country and Cantabria. This campaign included the infamous bombing of Guernica. Mola, the only general who could rival Franco, died in a plane crash.
The Republicans launched a failed offensive in Aragon at Belchite. The war concluded with the Nationalist offensive against Catalonia, preceded by a mass exodus of the population.
Internal divisions deepened within the Republican side. Negrín’s government advocated for continued resistance, while Casado opposed them. Franco demanded unconditional surrender. On March 28, Franco’s troops entered Madrid, and the war ended on April 1, 1939.
Consequences of the War
The human cost of the war was immense, with an estimated one million casualties. The country’s prison population exceeded 350,000 individuals in the early postwar years.
The economic consequences were equally severe. Spain’s GDP did not recover to pre-war levels until the 1960s. The destruction of homes and infrastructure led to a decline in national wealth by one-third. Communications suffered the most damage.
The victors implemented a policy of repression against the defeated, based on the Law of Political Responsibilities (1939) and the Law on Suppression of Freemasonry and Communism (1949). At least 500,000 people fled the country, although many eventually returned. Spain remained isolated internationally until 1945.
National Catholicism and Early Francoism (1945-1959)
The defeat of Germany and Italy in World War II posed a threat to the Franco regime’s survival. Franco maintained the same political factions but gave prominence to Catholics. An international campaign to isolate Spain began after the war.
On July 18, 1945, Franco formed a new government, reducing the influence of the Falange, retaining the military, and increasing Catholic representation. The regime enacted several fundamental laws to consolidate its power, including the Charter of the Spanish People (Fuero de los Españoles), the National Referendum Act, and the Law of Succession to the Head of State, which defined Spain as a kingdom with Franco as head of state for life and the power to appoint his successor.
In February 1956, student protests and clashes with Falangists at the University of Madrid signaled a shift in the political landscape.
The Autarkic Economy (1939-1959)
The civil war devastated the Spanish economy. Infrastructure, trade, and production were severely damaged, and gold reserves were depleted. The regime adopted an autarkic economic policy focused on self-sufficiency.
Key aspects of this policy included:
- Industrial development focused on heavy industry and import substitution.
- Trade restrictions and protectionism.
- Agricultural policies aimed at self-sufficiency but leading to food shortages.
- Rationing and black markets emerged due to scarcity.
- Social impact included poverty, malnutrition, and low living standards.
From 1951 to 1956, the regime implemented initial liberalizing measures to address the economic challenges.
Armed Resistance and Opposition
Towards the end of World War II, Republican exiles hoped to overthrow the Franco regime with Allied support. Communists and anarchists engaged in guerrilla activities in some parts of Spain.
In the 1950s, the internal opposition, led by the Communist Party of Spain (PCE), shifted its strategy, renouncing violence and focusing on social and labor movements. Strikes became a primary form of protest.
A Republican government-in-exile was established with representatives from various political factions, but it proved ineffective.