The Spanish Civil War: A Concise Overview
1. The Military Uprising
1.1. Plans of the Conspirators
The military conspiracy was initiated following the victory of the Popular Front in the February 1936 elections. The conspiracy involved both civil and military personnel. The July 1936 coup was planned by disgruntled military generals: Mola, Sanjurjo, and Franco.
General Emilio Mola, based in Pamplona, headed the operation. General Sanjurjo, designated to lead the military directory after the coup, died in a plane crash in the early days of the uprising. General Franco, who would later lead the rebels, joined the conspiracy at the last moment.
Mola aimed to establish a governance model similar to the dictatorship of Primo de Rivera, seeking authoritarian power. Members of CEDA desired a return to the Alfonsine monarchy; the Falange wanted a fascist regime like Italy’s; and the Carlists sought the introduction of a traditional monarchy.
The rebels anticipated a swift coup, not a protracted civil war. The Second Republic’s government, led by Casares Quiroga, failed to prevent the conflict. The Civil War resulted from a poorly executed coup and a weak government.
1.2. The Outbreak of the Uprising
The uprising began on July 17, 1936, in Morocco, with nearly 50,000 Legionnaires and indigenous troops led by General Juan Yagüe.
Franco, after securing the Canary Islands, moved to Morocco and assumed command of the rebellion. Between July 18 and 19, the uprising spread to the peninsula and archipelago. Seville, Cadiz, Cordoba, Granada, Navarre, most of Castile and Leon, the three capitals of Aragon, Galicia, Oviedo, and the Balearic Islands (except Minorca) joined the rebellion.
The loyalist area was divided: the Cantabrian coast and the Basque Country (except Spain) on one hand, and Madrid, Catalonia, Valencia, Castilla-La Mancha, Malaga, and Murcia on the other.
Armed workers formed the first spontaneous militias for the Republic. In Madrid, they stormed the Montaña barracks and massacred its defenders. The central government lost control of public order and the military, lacking capable and disciplined troops. The fleet was also ineffective.
By July 21, the coup had failed, and Spain was divided. This marked the beginning of the Civil War, which lasted until April 1, 1939.
2. The Development of the War
The war unfolded in stages, driven by the rebels’ initiative:
- The rebel advance towards Madrid (July-November 1936)
- Battles around Madrid and occupation of the North (December 1936-October 1937)
- The offensive towards the Mediterranean (November 1937-June 1938)
- The Battle of the Ebro and the end of the war (July 1938-April 1939)
2.1. The Rebel Advance Towards Madrid (July-November 1936)
Strategy: Moving from the south to Madrid.
In September, Franco took Toledo. By late October, he was at the gates of Madrid.
On November 6, the Republican government relocated to Valencia, leaving Madrid under a junta headed by General Miaja. Madrid withstood the attacks. The heroic resistance of Madrid (November-December 1936) concluded the “militia phase” of the war.
On the northern front, the capture of Irun by General Mola’s troops cut off Republican access to the French border, preventing reinforcements by land. Soon after (September 1936), San Sebastian surrendered without a fight.
2.2. Battles Around Madrid and Occupation of the North (December 1936-October 1937)
This stage saw the reorganization of both armies: the Republicans created the Popular Army of the Republic, militarizing or dissolving many militias; Franco also militarized his volunteer corps.
The rebels launched two maneuvers to enter Madrid: the Battle of Jarama (February 1937) and the Battle of Guadalajara (March 1937), both unsuccessful.
Franco shifted his strategy, focusing on the north. Fighting took place between April and October 1937, moving from east to west. The rebels, led by Mola, attacked Vizcaya. In April, the world’s first aerial bombing of a civilian population occurred in Guernica (Vizcaya). Bilbao was occupied in June.
The Republic launched the attacks of Brunete (Madrid) and Belchite (Zaragoza) to relieve pressure in the north, but failed to prevent Franco’s troops from taking Santander and Asturias. The entire north fell under rebel control.
2.3. The Push Towards the Mediterranean (November 1937-June 1938)
By December 1937, the Republican army had improved with the creation of mixed brigades led by Vicente Rojo. The Battle of Teruel saw the Republican army capture and hold Teruel until Franco launched the Aragon campaign.
Franco’s army crossed the Ebro River, reaching the Mediterranean at Vinaroz (Castellón) in April. They then advanced towards Valencia, taking Castellón in June.
The Republican territory was split into two isolated zones: Catalonia in the north and Madrid and Levante in the south.