The Spanish Civil War: A Concise History
The Military Revolt and the Development of the Civil War
Background
The history of the Spanish Civil War began with the Popular Front’s victory in the 1936 elections. Key actions of this government included a general amnesty for prisoners of the Asturias Revolution and the resumption of land reform. This fueled the war by angering landowners who supported a military conspiracy. Following their electoral defeat, right-wing parties also conspired to support a military coup. The assassination of Calvo Sotelo, a right-wing leader, on July 13th, signaled the start of the uprising, which had been planned since spring.
The Start of the War
The uprising began on July 17th. The areas that initially fell to the rebels included Morocco, the Canary Islands, Castile, Aragon, and Galicia. The uprising, initially planned as a swift coup, aimed to conquer Madrid and then advance north (led by Mola) and south (led by Franco). These armies linked up after taking Badajoz and, after briefly diverting to relieve the siege of Toledo, attacked Madrid in November 1936. The government fled to Valencia, leaving General Miaja to lead the defense. Militias were mobilized, and slogans like “They shall not pass” and “Madrid will be the tomb of fascism” rallied the people. The militias initially contained the offensive in the Sierra de Guadarrama, stabilizing the front. While some rebel troops crossed the Manzanares River, fierce resistance was encountered in Casa de Campo, University City, and Argüelles. With the help of international brigades, Madrid withstood the siege.
Evolution of the War
After the failed assault on Madrid, both sides realized the war would be protracted and reorganized their forces. Madrid was no longer the primary objective for the rebels. Two further attempts were made to capture the city, not by direct assault, but by isolating it. The Battle of Jarama, an attempt to cut the N-III road, failed. Another attempt involving Italian troops from Alcolea del Pinar and Sigüenza also failed at the Battle of Guadalajara.
The rebels’ main objective shifted to the north, home to much of the Republican industrial and armaments capacity. Mola amassed a powerful army, supported by the German Condor Legion’s artillery and aviation, which infamously bombed Guernica. After Mola’s death in a plane crash, General Davila conquered Santander and Asturias, effectively eliminating the Republican north.
During 1937, the reorganizing Republican army launched three offensives, mainly diversionary tactics. The Battle of Brunete aimed to divert Franco’s troops from the north and relieve the siege of Madrid, but failed. The Battle of Belchite, intended to relieve pressure on the north and advance towards Zaragoza, also failed. The Battle of Teruel (December 1937-January 1938), fought in harsh winter conditions, initially saw Republican success, but Franco counterattacked, retook Teruel, and launched a major offensive in two directions: towards Lérida in Catalonia, capturing it and the Pyrenees power stations, and towards the sea, reaching Vinaroz on April 15th and isolating Catalonia from Valencia.
In July 1938, the Republic launched its last major offensive, crossing the Ebro River and establishing a bridgehead. However, the offensive stalled in the grueling Battle of the Ebro (July-October 1938), a significant battle in terms of men and material involved. The Republicans were eventually pushed back across the Ebro.
After the Ebro defeat, the war neared its end. In early 1939, Franco’s troops attacked Catalonia. The Republican army primarily protected the exodus of refugees to France. On February 8th, the last Republican units crossed the border and were interned. While the central-south region still resisted, and the Republican government favored continuing the fight, hoping for European intervention, Colonel Casado led a rebellion in Madrid, seeking a negotiated surrender. Communists, along with Negrin, favored fighting to the death. Clashes erupted in Madrid in March 1939. Madrid fell on March 30th. Republicans gathered in Alicante, hoping to escape by sea. Only the British coal ship, Stanbrook, overloaded with refugees, evaded Franco’s naval blockade. Alicante fell on April 1st, 1939, ending the war.
Political Developments on the Republican Side
The political landscape shifted dramatically during the war. After the uprising, Casares Quiroga resigned, and Giral formed a new Republican government. However, this government struggled to assert authority, as unions (UGT and CNT) and worker’s parties controlled the streets, forming militias and establishing their own systems, particularly in Aragon and Catalonia, where anarchists collectivized factories and land. This dispersion of power led to Largo Caballero forming a government in September 1936, representing all Popular Front parties. This government granted autonomy to the Basque Country and attempted to control the militias and standardize production. Trotskyist communists (POUM) and anarchists opposed these measures, leading to clashes in Barcelona in May 1937. The POUM was eventually dismantled. Largo Caballero resigned, and Negrin formed a new government in spring 1937, with significant communist influence. The government moved to Barcelona and reorganized the army, increasing its effectiveness. By the war’s end, Negrin faced Azaña’s resignation as President.
Political Evolution of the Francoist Side
Following the uprising, General Sanjurjo was meant to lead the Nationalist side, but he died in a plane crash. A Defense Board, comprising rebel generals like Mola, Franco, and Queipo de Llano, temporarily took control. However, a unified command was needed. After several meetings, Franco was named head of government and commander-in-chief. The Defense Board was dissolved, and a Technical State Board, led by Franco, was established. The Falange and Carlists (Requetés) were the most important political groups supporting the regime. After Falange leader José Antonio Primo de Rivera was executed, the new, radical Falange leadership criticized the traditionalist Carlists. To end this strife, Franco decreed the unification of all political groups into a single party: FET de las JONS. Franco consolidated his control, placing trusted individuals, including his brother Nicolás Franco and brother-in-law Ramón Serrano Suñer, in key positions. Franco’s image was cultivated, and he was given the title of “Caudillo,” similar to Hitler’s “Führer” or Mussolini’s “Duce.” He was also named Head of State and Generalissimo of the armies.