The Spanish Civil War: A Comprehensive Overview

Posted on May 10, 2024 in History

The Spanish Civil War

The International Context of the Civil War

Non-Intervention Policy

Great Britain and France, aiming to appease the threat of German expansion, chose not to provoke Hitler by supporting the Republic. These major European democracies opted for non-intervention in the Spanish Civil War. A Non-Intervention Agreement was signed on August 1st by twenty-seven countries, including Britain, France, Germany, Italy, and the Soviet Union. This policy significantly hindered the Republican government’s ability to obtain arms and food supplies for its major cities.

Support for the Nationalists

Hitler, seeking to test military tactics without officially involving Germany in the war, provided support to the Nationalists through Portugal. The most organized unit operating in Spain was the Condor Legion. Mussolini, aligning with anti-Communist forces, sent troops and resources to aid Franco’s side.

Support for the Republic

The Soviet Union, disregarding the non-intervention pact, became the primary supplier of military aid to the Republic. Operation X, an ambitious and secret military mission, was initiated to provide assistance. However, due to logistical challenges posed by distance and the presence of German and Italian ships in the Mediterranean, delivering aid became expensive and risky. Consequently, coinciding with the Republic’s decline, Soviet assistance dwindled.

The Failure of the Coup

While a significant portion of the army’s officers joined the uprising, others remained loyal to the Republic, offering resistance in key locations like Madrid and Barcelona. This division within the military prevented a swift Nationalist victory.

The Failure of the Republican Government

The Republican government failed to heed warnings of a military uprising and initially refused to arm workers’ organizations. Instead, they attempted negotiations with the rebels. By the time they authorized the distribution of weapons, Spain was already divided into two distinct zones.

The Rebel Zone and the Nationalist Side

The rebels, adopting the title of Nationalists, controlled the northern, central, and western areas of Spain, along with isolated enclaves like Zaragoza, Granada, and Sevilla. Their forces were more unified and benefited from external support.

The Loyal Zone and the Republican Side

The Republicans maintained control of major industrial centers, including Madrid, Barcelona, Bilbao, Valencia, and Málaga. Their forces consisted of an improvised and inexperienced army of armed volunteers. Soviet advisors played a crucial role in organizing and instructing the Communist elements within the Republican ranks.

Political Revolution

Reformist Biennium (1931-1933)

Niceto Alcalá Zamora was appointed President of the Republic, and Manuel Azaña became the President of the government. This period witnessed ambitious reforms, including:

• The Statute of Autonomy for Cataluña
• Subordination of the army
• Expulsion of the Jesuits
• Agrarian reform, which faced resistance from landowners seeking to preserve their privileges

In 1933, anarchist laborers occupied land in Casas Viejas (Cádiz). The revolt was met with severe repression by Azaña’s government, accelerating the breakdown of the reformist biennium.

The Black Biennium (1933-1936)

The November 1933 elections saw victory for the CEDA and Partido Republicano Radical (PRR). Alejandro Lerroux (PRR) formed the government. This period was marked by political instability and a general strike that escalated into a revolution.

The Revolution of October 1934

This uprising involved nationalist, anarchist, and communist organizations. Key events included:

• Cataluña’s declaration of independence, leading to the dissolution of the Generalitat and the arrest of its president
• An armed revolt by miners in Asturias, which was ultimately suppressed by the army

The aftermath of the 1934 revolution saw a shift towards more radical positions, challenging the viability of peaceful democratic processes.

The Popular Front (1936)

In the February 1936 elections, left-wing parties united to form the Popular Front coalition, comprising republicans, socialists, and communists. The Popular Front granted amnesty to political prisoners from the 1934 Revolution and pursued social reforms. However, support for radical right-wing parties, represented by the Bloque Nacional led by José Calvo Sotelo and the fascist Falange Española founded by Jose Antonio Primo de Rivera, also surged. Parliament replaced Zamora with Azaña as President, and Santiago Casares Quiroga was appointed head of the government.

The Start of the Civil War (1936)

Parliamentary debates were tense, but street violence, assassinations, and church arson escalated the conflict. The assassination of right-wing deputy Calvo Sotelo proved to be a pivotal event, triggering the military coup. Emilio Mola orchestrated the rebellion under the leadership of José Sanjurjo, with support from conservative groups like the Carlists and the Falange. On July 17th, rebel soldiers in the protectorate of Morocco seized control of Ceuta, Melilla, and Tetuán. Within days, the Civil War had begun.

The Second Republic

Spanish society was deeply divided between the privileged classes, including the church and the army, and the disadvantaged working class. The Republic was perceived as an opportunity for modernization.

1930: The Pact of San Sebastian

In August 1930, republicans and socialists convened in San Sebastian, agreeing to overthrow the monarchy and establish a democratic republican regime. The municipal elections on April 12, 1931, signaled a shift in power, prompting Alfonso XIII to recognize his dwindling support and leave the country.

1931: The Proclamation of the Second Spanish Republic

On April 14, 1931, the Second Spanish Republic was proclaimed, with a Provisional Republican Government assuming power.

The 1931 Constitution

The constitution, primarily shaped by the Partido Socialista Obrero Español (PSOE) and Partido Republicano Radical (PRR), enshrined democratic and progressive principles:

• Popular Sovereignty: Elections were based on universal suffrage, ensuring equal, free, direct, and secret voting rights, including for women.
• Division of Powers: A system of checks and balances was established to prevent any one branch from accumulating excessive power.
• Declaration of Civil Rights: Fundamental rights, including freedom of speech, assembly, and religion, were guaranteed. Divorce and civil weddings were legalized, and the legal status of children born in and out of wedlock was equalized.
• Declaration of Collective Rights: Rights related to work, education, health, and housing were recognized. Primary education was made free and compulsory.
• Secularism: The state was declared secular, with no official religion.
• Regionalism: Statutes of autonomy were granted to regions seeking greater self-governance.
• Social Economy: The state was defined as a democratic republic of all workers, emphasizing social justice and economic equality.
• Public Interest: The constitution prioritized the well-being of all citizens, promoting social welfare and economic development.
• Workers’ Rights: Rights such as unemployment benefits, maximum working hours, and holidays were formally recognized.

Military Dictatorship in Spain

1923: Miguel Primo de Rivera’s Rise to Power

Miguel Primo de Rivera established a military dictatorship in 1923. His rule can be divided into three distinct phases:

• Early Years: Primo de Rivera initially enjoyed a degree of popularity, capitalizing on public discontent with the existing political system.
• Maintaining Power: A period of strong economic performance allowed the dictator to consolidate his authority and suppress dissent.
• 1929 Crisis: The economic prosperity proved unsustainable, leading to a severe crisis. Facing mounting opposition and economic turmoil, Primo de Rivera resigned and went into exile in Paris.

Political Evolution of Each Side in the War

The Nationalist Side

At the outset of the rebellion, a military council held sway. General Sanjurjo’s death in a plane crash led to a division of command between General Mola in the north and General Franco in the south.

Franco’s Consolidation of Power

Franco emerged as the supreme commander of the Nationalist forces (Generalísimo) and”Head of the Spanish State” His strong candidacy stemmed from his support among monarchists and his favorable relationships with Hitler and Mussolini. On November 18, 1936, Germany and Italy officially recognized Franco’s government.

Falange Española Tradicionalista y de las Juntas de Ofensiva Nacional Sindicalista (FET y de las JONS)

Franco merged various right-wing factions, including the Carlists and the Falange, into a single party known as the”Movimiento Nacional” with himself as Caudillo (leader). This consolidation of power paved the way for the establishment of a one-party state. In March 1939, Franco’s government gained recognition from France and Britain.

The Republican Side

The Republican side was characterized by internal divisions and a decentralized approach to governance. Workers collectivized industries in urban areas, while land redistribution empowered peasants in rural regions.

Revolution or Victory

The Republican side grappled with a lack of unity and discipline. In September 1936, Francisco Largo Caballero formed a coalition government in Valencia to unify the Republic and lead its disorganized army. The communists were particularly divided:

• The Marxist POUM (Partido Obrero de Unificación Marxista), anarchists from the CNT (Confederación Nacional del Trabajo), and FAI (Federación Anarquista Ibérica) believed that the war presented an opportunity to initiate a social revolution.
• In contrast, the PCE (Partido Comunista de España), aligned with Stalinism, prioritized achieving victory in the war above all else.

Juan Negrín, backed by Soviet advisors, became president of the new government. However, by October 1938, hopes of a Republican victory had dwindled.

Military Developments in the Spanish Civil War

The uprising

THE SPANISH CIVIL WAR

The international context of the Civil War

Non intervention policy

POLITICAL REVOLUTION

Reformist biennium (1931-1933)

The black biennium (1933-1936)

The Revolution of October 1934

THE SECOND REPUBLIC