The Spanish Civil War (1936-1939): A Nation Divided
The Coup and the Start of the War
In February 1936, following the controversial elections, a group of generals led by Emilio Mola planned a military uprising to “restore order” in Spain. The coup, supported by right-wing groups like CEDA and Falange Española, aimed to establish a military dictatorship and potentially return to a monarchy. The assassination of monarchist leader José Calvo Sotelo triggered the uprising, which began in Morocco on July 17th and quickly spread throughout the peninsula.
The coup failed to gain control of key industrial areas, but it succeeded in conservative regions like Galicia and Andalusia. The rebels, consisting of the military, landowners, monarchists, and clergy, faced opposition from the middle class, intellectuals, and international opinion who saw the conflict as a struggle between fascism and democracy.
Four Stages of the War
Stage 1: Advance Towards Madrid
The war initially involved two phases: the “war of columns” and the formation of regular armies. African troops under General Yagüe connected with rebel forces in the north, overcoming resistance in Badajoz and Toledo. The imminent threat to Madrid led to a general mobilization and the famous slogan “¡No pasarán!” (“They shall not pass!”). The Republican government relocated to Valencia, leaving General Miaja in charge of Madrid’s defense. The arrival of the International Brigades played a crucial role in resisting the rebel advance.
Stage 2: Battles Around Madrid and Northern Campaigns
The rebels attempted to encircle Madrid with two major battles: Jarama and Guadalajara. Both resulted in stalemates with heavy casualties. Franco then shifted his focus to the north, attacking Vizcaya with the support of Nazi Germany’s Luftwaffe, which infamously bombed Guernica. The Republicans launched offensives in Brunete and Belchite to relieve pressure on the north, but Franco’s forces eventually captured Santander and Asturias.
Stage 3: Advance Towards the Mediterranean
The Republican Army underwent restructuring and launched offensives, including the Battle of Teruel. They briefly occupied the city before being forced to retreat. Franco’s forces then launched the Aragon Offensive, reaching Castellón and dividing Republican territory. The advance towards Valencia, the Republican capital, was halted by the Republican resistance at the Ebro River.
Stage 4: The Battle of the Ebro and the End of the War
In July 1938, the Republicans launched the Battle of the Ebro, initially occupying territory but ultimately facing a successful counteroffensive by Franco. By November, the Republican army was severely weakened and forced to retreat. Franco’s forces then focused on Catalonia, leading to the fall of Gerona and the exile of many Republicans, including the government. With only the central zone remaining under Republican control, the head of the government, Juan Negrín, wished to continue the fight, but resistance was futile. England and France recognized Franco’s government, and President Azaña resigned in Paris. Colonel Casado led a revolt in Madrid, hoping to negotiate an honorable peace, but Franco refused any preconditions for surrender. On March 28, 1939, Franco’s troops entered Madrid, marking the end of the war.
Consequences and Legacy
The Spanish Civil War resulted in a devastating loss of life, with estimates ranging from hundreds of thousands to over a million casualties due to combat, repression, and hardship. Both sides engaged in indiscriminate violence, but the rebel faction systematically eliminated their opponents. Civilians fled their homes, seeking refuge in areas like Catalonia or exile in other countries. Children were evacuated to the Americas or the USSR, while those escaping to France faced internment in camps. Many exiles eventually found passage to Latin America, and the Republican government-in-exile was established in Mexico.
The Spanish Civil War remains a significant event in history, representing a clash of ideologies and a prelude to World War II. Its legacy continues to influence Spanish society and politics today.