The Spanish-American War of 1898: Causes, Development, and Consequences
The Spanish-American War
Introduction
The loss of Spain’s colonies and the subsequent crisis of 1898 marked the beginning of the decline of the Restoration. This system, despite its flaws, had established a period of political stability and social peace. However, it could not address the external challenges affecting Spain in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Spain’s isolation due to industrialization and its inability to compete with the colonization efforts of Britain, France, and the USA further complicated the situation.
Cuba, a particularly rich Caribbean colony, surpassed even Spain in the production of sugar, coffee, and tobacco. Therefore, Cuban independence was a different issue than the loss of other former Latin American colonies. Both Cuba and Puerto Rico were considered integral parts of Spain. However, the Cubans themselves yearned for liberation from Spanish rule, a sentiment fueled by American involvement and their own imperialist ambitions.
Historical Background
The Restoration regime was plagued by the Cuban question, encompassing several key problems:
- Previous Conflicts: Starting in 1868, Cuba experienced numerous uprisings fueled by Creole and slave nationalism.
- Zanjón Convention (1878): Spain’s failure to honor this pact, which ended decades of conflict, led to Creole dissatisfaction with Spanish political, financial, economic, and tax control.
- Lack of Autonomy: Spanish merchants resisted Cuban independence due to the lucrative trade monopoly. Spain attempted to convert Cuba into a province, sending 700,000 migrants, mostly from Galicia, to quell independence movements.
- Cuban Income: Primarily derived from the U.S., which imported 90% of Cuba’s sugar and tobacco production.
- Spanish Economic Weakness: Spain’s industry couldn’t absorb Cuban production nor provide manufactured goods. Creoles believed that Spain’s economic backwardness hindered Cuba’s growth.
Development of the War
The war began in February 1895 with the Grito de Baire insurrection in Cuba, led by José Martí and supported by the peasantry. Simultaneously, a revolt erupted in the Philippines in 1896, led by José Rizal and Emilio Aguinaldo.
Spain initially attempted reconciliation, sending General Martínez Campos to negotiate. His failure led to his replacement by Valeriano Weyler in 1896. Weyler implemented harsh tactics, including fortified lines to isolate rebel movements, concentrating peasants in villages, and destroying potential shelters. These measures weakened the Cubans but didn’t end the rebellion.
The United States protested Weyler’s tactics, and the Senate recommended recognizing the state of war in Cuba and offering mediation. Cánovas refused. Tensions escalated with the accidental destruction of the USS Maine in Havana harbor on February 15, 1898. The U.S. declared war on Spain in April, demanding Spain relinquish its sovereignty over Cuba.
Despite initial Spanish optimism, the war proved challenging, fought on land and sea across two fronts: the Atlantic (Cuba and Puerto Rico) and the Pacific (Philippines). The first battles occurred in the Pacific, where the Spanish fleet under Admiral Montojo was decisively defeated by the American fleet under Commodore Dewey in the Battle of Manila Bay on May 1, 1898. The Philippines subsequently rebelled.
In the Atlantic, the Spanish squadron was ordered to protect Puerto Rico and Cuba. However, they were blockaded by American ships in Santiago de Cuba. The Americans landed in Puerto Rico, and Spain, facing threats of bombardment of Cadiz and Barcelona, agreed to negotiate.
Peace of Paris: Consequences
The Treaty of Paris, signed in December 1898, recognized Cuban independence and ceded Puerto Rico, the Philippines, and Guam to the United States for $20 million. Spain sold its remaining possessions (Mariana Islands, Palau, and Caroline Islands) to Germany. Spain had lost the last vestiges of its overseas empire.
This “Disaster of ’98” triggered a national crisis, inspiring a group of intellectuals known as the Generation of ’98. Writers like Unamuno, Baroja, Azorín, Ramiro de Maeztu, and Benavente sought to revitalize and modernize Spain, critiquing the old oligarchs and political bosses.