The Song of Roland: History, Legend, and Medieval Epic
The Song of Roland (La Chanson de Roland in French) is an epic poem consisting of several thousand lines, written in the late eleventh century in Old French. It is attributed to a Norman monk named Turoldus, whose name appears on the last, enigmatic line: “Ci falt Turoldus declinet gesta.” However, the meaning of the verb “decline” in this verse is unclear; it could mean ‘sing,’ ‘compose,’ ‘transcribe,’ or ‘copy.’ It is considered the oldest epic poem written in a Romance language in Europe. The text of the Oxford manuscript, written in Anglo-Norman (circa 1170), consists of 4,002 decasyllabic lines, distributed in 29 stanzas of unequal length, called laisses in French.
Chansons de Geste: Epic Poems of Heroic Deeds
Epic poems are called chansons de geste (songs of deeds) and were recited publicly. Recitations were often accompanied by simple melodic phrases. The word “geste” comes from the Latin gesta, -ae, meaning “deeds” or “facts.” They are, therefore, memorable songs of heroic exploits. Both Spain and France possess a rich epic tradition. Like many epic poems, The Song of Roland is anonymous.
This particular epic poem was among the first to emerge in Europe, influencing many others that would later feature the events of Roncesvalles. The narrative reflects the virtues expected of knights and noblemen.
Historical Context: The Battle of Roncesvalles
This epic poem legendarily distorts the historical facts of the Battle of Roncesvalles. Historically, it was a skirmish, likely pitting Basque tribes against the rearguard of Charlemagne’s forces, led by Count Roland, Prefect of the Breton March. It is unclear if the encounter’s scope warrants being considered a full battle in the plains of Roncesvalles, near Burguete. It was more likely an ambush suffered by Charlemagne’s column on August 15, 778, in the Valcarlos Gorge, on the northern Pyrenean slope, according to ninth-century annals and chronicles.
For example, Einhard’s Vita Caroli, a Latin chronicle of Charlemagne’s reign, recounts how the young King Charles (not yet Emperor) allied with some Muslim leaders in their internal struggles. He crossed the Pyrenees in the spring of 778, taking Pamplona and besieging Zaragoza. Recalled to his own kingdom due to a Saxon attack and a mutiny in Aquitaine, he lifted the siege, pillaged Pamplona, and headed back. Subsequently, in retaliation for the sacking of Pamplona, his rearguard was attacked by Navarrese Basque mountaineers.
From History to Legend: Roland’s Epic Transformation
The Song of Roland was composed approximately three centuries after these historical events. This significant time gap allowed the events to be transformed and Roland, originally merely the Count of the Breton March, to become the Emperor Charlemagne’s wise, “flowing-bearded” nephew. The historical facts are embellished, imbuing them with an epic and heroic dimension. The protagonist, Roland (Roldán), is accompanied by an imaginary friend, Oliver. The Basque ambush transforms into an attack by 400,000 Saracens, whom Roland and the Twelve Peers of France can only defeat due to the betrayal of the treacherous Ganelon.