The Sexenio Democrático (1868-1874): A Democratic Experiment in Spain
The Sexenio Democrático (1868-1874)
The Glorious Revolution and the Provisional Government
Dictatorial practices of González Bravo, Narváez, and past moderate governments fueled the unpopularity of the moderate regime and Queen Isabella II. The economic crisis of 1866 further aggravated public discontent. With the death of Narváez in 1868, the moderate party, heavily reliant on notable figures, lost its leader. O’Donnell’s death in 1867 facilitated the alliance between the Liberal Union, led by General Serrano, and the progressives, aiming to overthrow Isabella II. The progressives, under General Prim, and the democrats, advocating for universal suffrage, had signed the Pact of Ostend in 1866, agreeing to depose the Queen.
The uprising began in September 1868, initiated by Unionist Admiral Topete in Cadiz. Popular revolts erupted across the country, culminating in the defeat of the government’s army at the Battle of Alcolea. The government resigned, Isabella II abdicated and went into exile in France. This event, known as the Glorious Revolution, ushered in a provisional government that proclaimed political freedoms, disarmed revolutionary committees, and convened Constituent Cortes. The government, chaired by Serrano with Prim as Minister of War, comprised unionists, progressives, and democrats. Elections for the Constituent Cortes, held under universal male suffrage, resulted in a progressive victory, shaping the 1869 Constitution.
The Constitution of 1869 and the Search for a King
The 1869 Constitution, considered the most liberal of the 19th century, established Spain as a constitutional monarchy based on national sovereignty. It recognized universal male suffrage for those over twenty-one, limited the King’s powers, and vested executive power in the Council of Ministers. The bicameral Cortes, composed of Congress and Senate, held legislative power, while the judiciary was reserved for the courts. The Bill of Rights was expanded, including rights of assembly, association, and freedom of worship. The government was accountable to the Cortes.
Following the adoption of the Constitution, General Serrano became regent, and Prim headed the new government. The search for a new monarch led to the selection of Amadeus of Savoy, son of Victor Emmanuel II of Italy, known for his liberal leanings. However, Prim was assassinated days before Amadeus’s arrival, weakening the new King’s position from the outset. Amadeus faced opposition from the Carlists in the north, the Alfonsists supporting the return of Isabella II’s son, Alfonso XII, and the Republicans demanding radical reforms. Despite the coalition of unionists, progressives, and democrats that brought him to power, Amadeus’s reign was plagued by political instability. After two years, he abdicated in 1873, returning to Italy.
The First Republic and its Challenges
The ensuing power vacuum led the Cortes to proclaim the First Spanish Republic on February 11, 1873. However, the Republic lacked broad social support and faced opposition from the bourgeoisie, landowners, military, and the Church. Its support base was limited to the urban middle classes, while the working class gravitated towards the anarchist movement. The Republic’s weakness resulted in extreme political instability, with four presidents in a single year: Figueras, Pi y Maragall, Salmerón, and Castelar.
Republican governments implemented radical reforms, including abolishing consumption tax (worsening the treasury deficit), eliminating the mandatory military service (weakening the army against the Carlists), lowering the voting age to twenty-one, separating Church and State, regulating child labor, abolishing slavery in Cuba and Puerto Rico, and drafting a federal constitution. These reforms were attempted amidst a triple challenge: the Carlist War, the Cantonalist revolts (federalist uprisings), and the Ten Years’ War in Cuba. Additionally, the Republic faced a military conspiracy by Alfonsists seeking the restoration of the Bourbons.
The Restoration of the Bourbons
In 1874, General Pavia’s coup dissolved the Republican Parliament, establishing a dictatorship under General Serrano. This paved the way for the Bourbon Restoration, orchestrated by the Alfonsists led by Cánovas del Castillo. General Martínez Campos’s coup on December 29, 1874, proclaimed Isabella II’s son as King Alfonso XII, marking the beginning of the Restoration period.