The Second Spanish Republic: Political and Social Developments
Political and Social Developments of the Second Spanish Republic
I. End of the Monarchy. Provisional Government
II. Reform Biennium
Constitution
Reforms
Other Events
III. Black or Right Biennium
IV. Popular Front
End of the Monarchy. The Provisional Government
The causes of the end of the monarchy were varied, from the weariness of a dictatorship, the clumsiness of Berenguer and Aznar in trying to rescue the turnismo, which ended the successes of the dictatorship after the 1929 crisis, to other more general issues such as the persistence of strong inequalities despite industrial development. We must also add the actions of the Pact of San Sebastian, which in August 1930 brought together three major forces advocating for a future change to a republic: regionalists, constitutional monarchists hesitant about the monarchy, and the “Historical Republican” and Socialist Party. The pact had two courses of action: the revolutionary (for example, the failed uprising of Jaca in 1930) and the political (press campaigns against the monarchy).
In the municipal elections of April 12, 1931, in a climate of uncertainty and manipulation by the government, which hoped to win, monarchists won only in provincial capitals and areas controlled by their leaders. This led to the election being perceived as a plebiscite against the monarchy. On April 13, the results became known, and people took to the streets to demonstrate in favor of the Republic. On April 14, the Republic was proclaimed in Madrid, Barcelona, and other provinces, amid a festive atmosphere. The Count of Romanones, Minister of State, recommended that Alfonso XIII leave Spain. When General Sanjurjo, head of the Civil Guard, stated that his men would not fight for the monarchy, the king went into exile.
A provisional government headed by the conservative Niceto Alcalá-Zamora, with representatives of the various tendencies of the Republican-Socialist coalition (excluding Carlists, PNV, anarchists, and communists), was formed and set to work transforming the state.
The international situation was unfavorable. The 1929 economic crisis and the depression of the 1930s resulted in a hostile environment between nations. The rise of fascism and Nazism also caused destabilization of democracies. The economic crisis also hit Spain, making it even more difficult to address the necessary reforms.
Before the implementation of the Republic, the major economic powers (landowners, industrialists, financiers) withdrew their funds and reduced loans, sinking the financial system. The first serious conflict was with the Catholic Church. A section of the Vatican and some bishops waited and abided by the new regime, but others, led by Cardinal Segura, archbishop of Toledo, took a belligerent attitude, praising Alfonso XIII and Church-State relations during the monarchy in an article (“When the enemies of the reign of Jesus Christ are moving resolutely, no Catholic can remain inactive”). The government ordered the expulsion of Segura. In this context, in May, convents and other religious centers in Madrid, Cadiz, Seville, Málaga, and elsewhere were burned by the extreme left.
II. The Reform Biennium
The reforms (social, religious, military, etc.) began during the first stage and were completed once elections were called. On June 26, 1931, elections were held for the Constituent Cortes with a modification of the electoral system (provincial boundaries to avoid despotism; women could be candidates but still could not vote). This change benefited the major parties but made it possible to obtain minority representation.
The coalition of Republicans and Socialists won a landslide majority. For the first time, there were women MPs. The conservative right and anti-Republicans were reduced to small minorities.
The Constitution of 1931
The project was written by a commission headed by the Socialist Jimenez de Asua. There was a consensus on the need for a constitution, but the initiative was undertaken by the Socialists. It was inspired by the Weimar Constitution (Germany) but was more advanced.
The Constitution defines Spain as a “republic of workers of all kinds,” meaning that the origin of the state is not property or work, which was typical of the 19th century. The powers emanate from the people.
Powers
The legislature is a unicameral Cortes (Congress of Deputies) with legislative initiative and the power to elect the head of state. It allows for the possibility of referendums and popular initiatives. The executive branch consists of the President of the Government and the government. The judiciary consists of judges, courts, and juries. The Constitution ensures the independence of powers.
The president (head of state) is elected by the Cortes and a selection of electors, not directly by voters. The Cortes can be dissolved only twice. The president is elected for six years and cannot stand for reelection. Both the president and the government are accountable to the Cortes. Thus, there is supremacy of the legislature.
The Constitution establishes the Constitutional Court, whose main function was to decide on the constitutionality of laws.
Rights
The Constitution includes an extensive bill of rights, encompassing individual, political, familial, economic, and cultural rights. In addition to traditional liberal rights, it lists other second-generation rights such as political and trade union association, education, health, and housing. The voting age is lowered, and universal suffrage (including women) is supported. The state has an obligation to spread culture, and academic freedom is guaranteed. Divorce is legalized.
In economic terms, based on the principle that individual interests must be limited for the benefit of the people, work becomes a social obligation, protected by law. It includes the possibility of nationalization and socialization of economic sectors, allowing limitations on the right to private property.
The Church
The most controversial articles were 26 and 27, relating to the Church. Article 3 stated that the state had no official religion, but these articles stipulated that the Church and religious orders would receive no subsidies from the state, would have the status of associations, and would be governed by a special law. They could not engage in industry, commerce, or education. The Jesuit order was dissolved. The Church declared a blockade, not against the government but against the Republic.
Decentralization
The Constitution reflects the unity of Spain but allows for the regulation of autonomous regions (historical regions) with the transfer of certain powers. It is not a unitary state, but it does not reach the level of a federal republic; in fact, it prohibits the federation of autonomous regions. One of the key points to remember is that on the day of the proclamation of the Republic, the Estat Català was proclaimed.
The Reforms
The Army
The army reform was the work of Azaña. The aim was to create a better-prepared army, eliminate excess officers, make it loyal to the Republic, and integrate it into civilian life. More than 6,000 officers were retired (with full pay). Some senior officials were removed, and the Zaragoza Military Academy was closed. Promotions based on war merits were eliminated, military service was changed, the defense budget was trimmed, and an attempt was made to technically prepare the military.
The reform was carried out with little political skill, creating military opposition to the regime and internal dissent. Budget cuts hindered modernization.
The Assault Guard, an armed police force for public order, was also created, intended to be more loyal to the Republic than the Civil Guard.
Land Reform
Land reform proved difficult due to differences in ownership and leasing rates. The aim was to streamline ownership and ensure rural settlements. In Spain, land ownership was highly concentrated. Around 24,000 hectares were expropriated, and another 20,000 hectares of lesser quality were also expropriated. Fewer than 6,000 rural settlements were established.
Besides the objective of social justice, the reform aimed to avoid conflict and social unrest in rural areas. It also had a political objective: to eliminate the economic power of large landowners, the vast majority of whom were monarchists and enemies of the Republic. It was assumed, moreover, that by raising farmers’ incomes, consumption would rise and stimulate the development of industry and commerce. Right-wing parties tried to hinder the reform by all means, and when they came to power in the next period, they suspended it.
The lands belonging to the extinct Grandees of Spain were expropriated without compensation. Estates, uncultivated land, and land systematically leased or abandoned were declared expropriated in exchange for compensation. Expropriated land, whose new owner was going to be the state, would be used for the settlement of farmers who would exploit collective farms and cultivate individual plots, as they chose. To organize the reform, the Agrarian Reform Institute (IRA) was created. Its budget was very small.
The results were very limited. While the plan was to settle about 60,000 farmers, only 1,200 settlements were established in two years. In addition to the complexity of the law, there was a limited budget. All this led to the frustration of workers, who often chose land occupations and confrontations with law enforcement.
Statutes of Autonomy
Catalonia was the first to start the process, practically before the Republic was even established. In June 1931, the Statute of Núria was drafted and passed with 99% of the votes. Its debate in parliament was extended until September 1932, with opposition from the Radical Party and some Socialists. Azaña finally managed to get the Statute approved. The project included an executive branch (the Government), a Parliament, and a Court of Cassation, with important powers in the civil and administrative system, all transportation, and health and social services. Education, public order, and finance were shared competences. The first president was Francesc Macià.
The Basque Statute was further complicated by the differences between the PNV, Carlists, and Socialists. The final draft included the three Basque provinces and Navarre, but the latter refused. It was also paralyzed with the victory of the right in 1933. It was not until October 1936, with the Civil War already underway, that it was passed, with José Antonio Aguirre as Lehendakari.
In Galicia, nationalism was not as strong, but thanks to the work of ORGA, the Galician Party, and the figure of Castelao, an assembly of municipalities presented a project that was never approved due to the outbreak of the Civil War.
In Andalusia, the figure of Blas Infante should be noted, who spearheaded the creation of a draft statute.
Social Reform
The leaders of the social reform were Largo Caballero and Marcelino Domingo (Socialists). Employment delegations were created. Working hours for farmers were reduced. Other laws included the Municipal Law, which required that workers in a village be hired first (to prevent outsiders from being hired as strikebreakers), and the Obligatory Cultivation Law, which required owners to cultivate their land. Another important law was the Mixed Juries Law, which created joint committees to address labor issues. Moreover, a Public Works Plan (railways and roads) was implemented to address unemployment during the economic crisis of the 1930s. Following the recommendations of the ILO (International Labour Organization), attempts were made to generalize social insurance, but these were unsuccessful due to lack of budget.
Education Reform
Marcelino Domingo and then Fernando de los Ríos, from the Ministry of Education, initiated the education reform. The Constitution stated that primary education was compulsory, free, and mixed-gender, to the scandal of the right. The reform focused mainly on primary education. More than 10,000 schools were created, and the budget was increased by 50%, also increasing teachers’ salaries. It was very difficult to replace religious institutions in education. In addition, teaching missions were established, which were sent from Madrid to rural areas of Spain and in which some of the best young intellectuals participated (e.g., Lorca). Therefore, it is said that the Civil War was a war of priests against teachers.
It should be noted here the coincidence of the Republic with the creation of the Residencia de Estudiantes, which brought together great personalities of the time, such as Lorca, Dalí, and Buñuel.
Other Events
The government was formed by left-wing Republicans and Socialists in coalition. The president was Manuel Azaña, considered by historians to be an authoritarian reformer, a Jacobin. He alienated not only the right but also liberal intellectuals such as Ortega y Gasset (“Not this, not this”).
One of the most significant events was the attempted coup by General Sanjurjo against the Republic in 1932. The reasons for the coup lay in his opposition to the autonomy of Catalonia. Sanjurjo was tried and imprisoned, and the government used the coup as a justification to expropriate land without compensation from those involved.
The other event that caused a cabinet crisis was the events of Casas Viejas. After several months of anarchist agitation (episodes of Castilblanco and Arnedo), a failed anarchist revolution in Casas Viejas ended with the indiscriminate shooting of peasants by the Civil Guard. The right took advantage of this and organized itself into the CEDA, which gained ground in the municipal elections of 1933.
In addition to the CEDA, a mass party that strongly advocated authoritarian Catholic principles, other right-wing parties emerged: Spanish Renewal, led by Calvo Sotelo, which directly defended a coup, and fascist groups such as the Spanish Falange or JONS.
Azaña resigned in September after Alcalá Zamora withdrew his confidence. In the subsequent elections, women voted for the first time. Anarchists called for abstention. The results gave victory to the right, not only due to the change in the electorate but also due to dissatisfaction with the reforms.