The Second Spanish Republic: From Reform to Revolution
Counter Policy (1934-1936): During this period, the right-wing government implemented policies that hindered agrarian reform. The budget for land redistribution was significantly reduced, the number of peasants allowed to settle was capped at 2,000 per year, and wages were lowered. The Land Reform Act of 1935 further exacerbated the situation by making it easier for landlords to evict tenants who couldn’t pay rent and more difficult for farmers to own leased land. Settled farmers were displaced, and municipalities saw expropriated land returned to previous owners with excessive compensation. The left deemed the new law unconstitutional, and agricultural unions organized a general strike in June. The government responded with disproportionate force, dismantling the agricultural unions.
Opposition to Autonomy: As a conservative right-wing party, the government held a strong patriotic ideology and opposed autonomy, believing that Spain should remain a unified nation.
Changes in the Army: An amnesty law was passed, releasing military rebels who had been imprisoned.
Revolution of October 1934: On October 5, 1934, the Second Republic faced its most severe crisis yet: an anti-democratic revolutionary movement. The Socialists called for a general strike and armed insurrection. The government declared a”state of wa” throughout Spain, but the move backfired. While Catalonia experienced a general strike, the movement in Asturias escalated into a full-blown social revolution.
Consequences of the Revolution in Asturias:
- Numerous casualties and injuries.
- Severe government repression followed the revolution.
- Public opinion and the government itself became divided.
- The CEDA (Spanish Confederation of Autonomous Rights) gained strength.
- The new government adopted more conservative measures.
- The defeat of the workers emboldened employers, leading to economic repression.
- A faction within the Catholic right, opposing the accidental position of Gil Robles, declared itself anti-Republican.
Fall of the Government: The government’s downfall was triggered by the”black market scandal” which involved political bribery within the Radical Party and the granting of licenses for rigged roulette casinos. The Cortes (parliament) was dissolved, and new elections were called.
Triumph of the Left (Popular Front Government)
Formation and Triumph of the Popular Front: Following the collapse of the Radical Party, a clash emerged within the PSOE (Spanish Socialist Workers’ Party) between revolutionary and reformist factions. The Popular Front emerged, uniting reformers, socialists, and anarchists, advocating for reformist policies. They aimed to reinstate juries, increase the education budget, and address social and economic inequalities. The Popular Front’s pact was interpreted as a defensive alliance between the middle and working classes. The elections of February 16, 1936, took place in a relatively calm atmosphere. The left presented a united front, while the right was divided and discredited. The results reflected a punishment of Lerroux and a significant victory for the Popular Front.
Government Actions and the Cortes: The new government’s first act was to declare an amnesty, releasing both common criminals and political prisoners. They encouraged the development of regional autonomy and accelerated land reform. The balance of power in rural areas shifted, with workers and their unions now holding sway, instilling fear in employers and landowners. The newly elected Cortes dismissed President Alcalá Zamora, considering him too moderate. They replaced him with Manuel Azaña, a move considered a political blunder as Zamora could have served as a bridge between the opposing factions. In parliament, Gil Robles led the opposition, engaging in heated confrontations with the left. Both sides harbored aspirations of restoring the monarchy under Alfonso XIII. The Church, alarmed by growing anti-clericalism, condemned the government’s actions, particularly the closure of religious schools, the secularization of education, and the introduction of co-education.
Pre-War Unrest: Cities experienced widespread disorder. 1936 saw a poor harvest, leading to an increase in agricultural strikes. Union leaders encouraged farmers to occupy land. Social unrest escalated in major cities, with daily clashes between Falangist militias and socialist youth groups. Both sides were armed; the latter called for social revolution, while the Falangists advocated for a national uprising. Among the right-wing paramilitary groups, the Spanish Falange gained prominence. Hunger strikes became a common occurrence.
The Anti-Democratic Uprising: The idea of a military coup emerged the day after the Popular Front’s victory. A group of generals, with the support of exiled figures, planned to declare a state of war and prevent the election winners from forming a government. Their objective was not to restore the monarchy but to establish a military dictatorship. They aimed to suspend the constitution, dissolve the Cortes, imprison, and if necessary, execute leftist leaders and dismantle unions. This marked the beginning of the bloody Spanish Civil War and a period of brutal repression in 1936.
Historical Background: The international context was marked by the aftermath of the 1929 economic crisis, which triggered the Great Depression. Social anxieties fueled a crisis of democracy, leading to the rise of totalitarian movements like Stalinism on the left and fascism on the right. Spain experienced economic stagnation and social imbalances. The 1929 crisis exacerbated unemployment and social polarization, further aggravated by a lack of democratic culture. This led to economic and social reforms by republican governments, although these reforms faced significant opposition.
Provisional Government and the Constitution of 1931: The soft dictatorship of Primo de Rivera and the growth of republicanism culminated in the Pact of San Sebastian, an agreement to establish a republic in Spain with autonomy for Catalonia. The provisional government implemented initial reforms:
Army: Senior officers were forced to declare allegiance to the republic, with those refusing being forced into retirement. Key positions were abolished, merit-based promotions were suppressed, and the army underwent significant restructuring.
Education: Reforms aimed to combat illiteracy, particularly in rural areas. The working day was set at 8 hours, employers were obligated to provide work for local farmers, a minimum wage was established, tenant evictions for non-payment were banned, and land cultivation became mandatory.
Church: State subsidies to the Church were abolished, and religious education was no longer mandatory.
These reforms sparked immediate controversy, leading to the burning of convents, the expulsion of Cardinal Segura, and widespread unrest. The CNT (National Confederation of Labor) and FAI (Iberian Anarchist Federation) organized strikes, and Catalonia declared its independence.
The Constitution of 1931: On June 28, 1931, the first general elections for a Constituent Assembly were held, with the PSOE emerging as the largest party. The Cortes drafted a new constitution, which was passed on December 9, 1931. This democratic constitution incorporated socialist and republican ideals, aiming to fundamentally transform the state. The right wing felt marginalized and soon began conspiring against the republic. Key aspects of the constitution included:
- Suffrage for women.
- Recognition of autonomy for municipalities and regions.
- Land expropriation for social purposes.
- Definition of Spain as a republic of workers.
- Freedom of religion, expression, assembly, and association.
- Protection of workers’ rights.
- Eligibility of women for public office.
- Legalization of civil marriage and divorce.
The constitution stipulated that the executive branch, including the President of the Republic, would be elected and their actions subject to legislative approval. The Church was to lose its state subsidies within two years and was prohibited from engaging in education. Following the constitution’s adoption, Congress elected Niceto Alcalá Zamora as President of the Republic and Manuel Azaña as Prime Minister. They formed a government that excluded both the Radical Party and right-wing parties.
The Biennium Reformist Period (1931-1933): The Azaña government implemented numerous reforms, with land redistribution and the Statute of Autonomy of Catalonia being the most contentious. Political opposition, though disorganized, came from monarchists and employers’ associations. Within the Cortes, Lerroux’s party voiced criticism, while some intellectuals labeled the Catalan Statute as separatist. Municipalities in Navarre voted against the Basque-Navarrese Statute. While laborers initially hoped for land distribution, their disappointment at the slow pace of reform led to revolts. The Civil Guard’s intervention in these uprisings often turned violent. In Casas Viejas, peasants revolted and attacked a Civil Guard barracks. The government’s response was brutal, with Assault Guards besieging a peasant leader’s house and killing him, his family, and over 14 other peasants. The press, parliament, and trade unions condemned the government’s repression, further tarnishing its image and contributing to Azaña’s resignation. Alcalá Zamora dissolved the Cortes and called for new elections.
The Triumph of the Right (1934-1936): The period of Radical-CEDA government was marked by a deepening crisis and radicalization of the labor movement, leading to violent clashes. The left, divided after its defeat, felt betrayed by the lack of solidarity from the new government and its disregard for the election results. The PSOE and UGT (General Union of Workers) began advocating for social revolution.
olution.