The Second Spanish Republic: From Reform to Civil War (1931-1936)
The Center-Right Biennium (1933-1935)
At this stage, the Republic, initially propelled by leftist and Republican sectors, fell into the hands of a right-wing coalition that believed in democracy, but perhaps less in the Republic itself. This shift occurred as a direct result of the decisions expressed by the Spanish people at the polls. Major reforms undertaken by Azaña were halted and reversed, leading to extreme radicalization of leftist and nationalist forces. These two years of center-right governments represent the ultimate failure of democratic coexistence in Spain and set the stage for the nation’s great tragedy: the Civil War.
The Electoral Victory of the Right
The election results signified a triumph for the right, particularly the CEDA and the Radical Party, and a defeat for the Republican Left and the Socialists.
The Governments of the Radical Party
The Radical Party formed a coalition government with other centrist Republican parties. They began their work amidst a new anarchist insurrection. They modified various aspects of religious politics, approving salaries for priests and not applying the Law of Confessions. Regarding labor legislation and land reform, there were significant changes: mixed juries were altered, shifting power from unions to employers, and the municipal law was overturned.
The radical government proposed an amnesty law in the Cortes of Cadiz, which involved the reinstatement of generals involved in the attempted coup of 1932.
The Revolution of October 1934
The government’s actions led to the reorganization of the bourgeois Republican Left around Azaña, who founded a new party: Republican Left. The working left became radicalized, including the PSOE and the UGT, along with the CNT. Numerous strikes and demonstrations were promoted in cities and the countryside. In October 1934, the entry of three CEDA ministers into the government was interpreted by the Socialists as a betrayal of the Republic to its enemies. This sparked a long-brewing revolution, supported by the PCE and the CNT. In most parts of Spain, the revolution manifested as strikes lasting a few days. However, in Catalonia and Asturias, the situation reached a remarkable level of tension.
The End of the Right-Wing Biennium
The Radical Party largely complied with the demands of the CEDA and employers’ organizations. Social and labor reforms were dismantled. The Agrarian Reform was overturned. Gil-Robles implemented changes in military commands, appointing anti-Azaña military personnel. He planned a constitutional reform to revise religious politics.
However, before the constitutional revision could be undertaken, a crisis erupted within the Radical Party due to corruption scandals. Alcalá Zamora finally decided to dissolve the Cortes and call new elections for February 16, 1936.
The Popular Front
Leftist groups and political parties (Republicans, Socialists, and Communists) formed a coalition called the Popular Front, mirroring a similar movement in France. This political organization won a majority in the February 1936 elections, defeating the right-wing coalition known as the Anti-Revolutionary National Front. Manuel Azaña returned to the presidency, and his government’s actions included: amnesty for prisoners of the October 1934 Revolution, continuation of the reforms from the first Republican biennium, approval of the Catalan Statute, and the transfer of Generals Franco, Goded, and Mola to prevent organized military uprisings.
However, the new government faced a difficult situation, marked by continuous instability related to the European and global crisis of the 1930s. Strikes multiplied, land invasions by peasants increased, and urban violence manifested in street fighting. Actions by left-wing extremists against priests further exacerbated the situation. In these circumstances, the Cortes dismissed Alcalá Zamora and elected Manuel Azaña as President, with Santiago Casares Quiroga as Prime Minister. Quiroga attempted to govern the country amidst fears of social subversion and a military coup supported by the right, which had already begun to take shape.
Plans to overthrow the Republic, led by the military, began immediately after the election results and gained momentum until July, when tensions escalated with the murder of right-wing leader Calvo Sotelo (carried out by a socialist). These events triggered the outbreak of the Civil War on the night of July 17, 1936.
The 1931 Constitution
The 1931 Constitution was drafted by a committee chaired by Jiménez de Asúa, with significant input from the Socialists. The drafters aimed to extend rights and ensure their enforcement. Its greatest innovation was the establishment of autonomous communities within the Spanish state. It was promulgated on December 9, 1931, inspired by the Weimar Constitution. It was rigid, requiring “double approval” for reform. Its aim was to achieve a democratic regime, ensuring political participation for all social sectors.
Constitutional Principles
- Establishes the principle of national sovereignty, referred to as popular sovereignty to avoid semantic conflict with nationalist claims.
- Sets universal suffrage for men and women over 23 years old.
- In economics, it established provisions that enabled changes in production relations, with private property subject to the interests of the national economy.
- The state was described as a “republic of workers of all kinds,” integral but compatible with the autonomy of municipalities and regions, a model between a unitary and federal state, a predecessor of the current state of autonomies.
- The declaration of rights was superior to any previous Spanish Constitution, with guarantees of compliance through legal remedies.
- The most debated principle concerned religious matters. The state was declared non-denominational. Article 26 stipulated that the Catholic Church and religious orders would not receive any state benefits.
Organization of Powers
- Cortes: Legislative power, representing popular sovereignty. Unicameral: Congress of Deputies.
- President of the Republic: Head of state. Any eligible citizen could be President, except the military, ecclesiastics, and members of the royal family. Embodied and represented the nation. Appointed and dismissed the Prime Minister and ministers, with parliamentary approval. Could convene or dissolve Parliament extraordinarily. Held legislative powers in exceptional cases, with parliamentary approval.
- Government: Executive branch. Directed the Republic’s policy. Held legislative powers through bills or decrees, with parliamentary approval.
- Judiciary: Special courts were eliminated. Trial by jury was established, another manifestation of popular sovereignty.
The Reformist Biennium (1931-1933)
The Constituent Cortes drafted a new constitution. After intense debates, the Constitution was adopted in December 1931. It defined Spain as “a democratic republic of workers of all kinds, organized under a free and fair system” and as a single state with regional autonomy. Unicameral Cortes were elected by universal suffrage (granting women the right to vote for the first time). The state was declared secular, separating church and state. A Republican-Socialist coalition government, chaired by Azaña, undertook an extensive reform program during the Reformist Biennium (1931-1933) to address serious inherited problems. The economic downturn following the Crash of 1929 and the desire to avoid increasing government debt contributed to the failure of these reforms due to a lack of resources.
Military Reform
Azaña attempted to bring the military under civilian authority and increase its efficiency by reducing the excessive number of officers, who could voluntarily transfer to the reserves with full pay. The lack of budget hindered modernization and created unrest among officers. A public policy Assault Guard, loyal to the Republic, was established.
Religious Reform
Subsidies to the clergy were removed, religion in schools was eliminated, religious orders were prohibited from teaching, civil marriage and divorce were recognized, and the Society of Jesus was dissolved. The government was unable to curb anticlerical violence that erupted in May 1931 in Madrid and other cities. Many Catholics saw the Republic as an attack on God.
Educational Reform
Primary education was made compulsory, free, secular, and mixed. Funding for education increased by 50%, more than 10,000 schools were built, and 7,000 better-paid teaching positions were created. Educational Missions brought culture to backward rural regions.
Regional Reform
Catalonia was granted the Statute of Autonomy in 1932, establishing an autonomous government, the Generalitat, with jurisdiction over culture, public works, and public order. Francesc Macià was elected president. In the Basque Country, a draft statute prepared by the Basque Nationalist Party and the Carlists was rejected for being traditionalist and undemocratic. A statute of autonomy would not be granted until 1936, after the start of the Civil War.
Land Reform
In September 1932, the Basic Law of Agrarian Reform was adopted, despite opposition from the right. The aim was to end landlordism, absenteeism, and the misery of 2 million workers. Lands belonging to the grandees of Spain were expropriated without compensation, and estates that were systematically poorly cultivated or leased were declared expropriable with compensation. The land would be handed over to peasants. The Agrarian Reform Institute (ARI) was established to carry out the reform. The pace of reform was slow, and the results were poor. Disappointed peasants leaned toward revolutionary anarchism (as seen in Aragon and Andalusia, with the events of Casas Viejas). Landowners were clearly hostile to the reform.
Azaña’s government resigned. The November 1933 elections resulted in a victory for the right. The CEDA became the largest party (115 seats) and governed in coalition with the centrist Radical Party led by Lerroux (102 seats). The Radical-CEDA biennium (1933-1936) was marked by political instability and reactionary policies (known as the “black biennium”).
Main Outcome Measures
- Law of Amnesty for all insurgents in the failed Sanjurjo coup.
- Repeal of the Law of Congregations and approval of a budget for the clergy.
- Review of agrarian reform, canceling expropriations, increasing compensation, and cutting the budget for its implementation.
- Problems with the regions: the Catalan Statute was suspended after the events of 1934, and the Basque Statute was not adopted.