The Second Spanish Republic (1931-1933)
I. The Dawn of the Republic (1931)
Following the configuration of the new regime, the provisional government, agreed upon in the San Sebastián Pact, called for constituent elections on June 28th. Some members of the government initiated reforms through provisional decrees, known as Decretos Urgentes. One particularly controversial decree, affecting farmworkers, mandated:
- Matching minimum wage for agricultural workers to industrial workers
- An 8 am workday start
- Law municipalities
- Forced Labor Act
Republican Manuel Azaña’s decree, as Minister of War, officially retired army chief officers who did not pledge explicit loyalty to the new regime. These officers were retired with full pay. Negotiations with Basque and Catalan representatives sought an autonomous solution for the new constitution. The Republic faced hostility from large landowners, businessmen, and much of the military. It was also opposed by the Church. Archbishop of Toledo and Primate of Spain, Cardinal Segura, openly expressed his opposition to the Republic. This resulted in popular anti-clericalism, culminating in the burning of convents and religious buildings on May 11th and 12th, due to the new government’s inaction. Anarchists continued strikes and social conflicts, demanding social reforms from the republican government. The elections gave a majority to the Republican-Socialist coalition, a landslide for the left. The right, however, held less representation than its real strength in society, desiring a more conservative constitution than Spain ultimately adopted.
II. The 1931 Constitution
The Courts appointed a commission to draft a constitution, which was approved on December 31st after three months of democratic debates. Markedly progressive, it defined the Spanish state as a republic of workers of all classes, highlighting the popular will. It stated:
- The State would integrally accept the possibility of autonomous governments in regions with nationalist consciousness.
- Executive power lay with the ministers and the president of the Council of Ministers.
- The President of the Republic, elected by Congress, would have responsibilities under the control of the chamber, which could dismiss him.
- Legislative power resided in Parliament, consisting of a single chamber: the Congress of Deputies, with powers over other institutions.
- Universal suffrage for men and women over 23 years of age.
The electoral law favored the highest voted party in the first round (granting them 80% of constituency seats), fostering coalitions. The constitution included a comprehensive statement of personal rights and freedoms, equality of citizens before education and work, separation of church and state, civil marriage and divorce, eminent domain with the possibility of indemnification, and the possibility of nationalizing public services. Two further discussed items were:
- Religious orders were not to engage in education, industry, or commerce.
- Dissolution of the Society of Jesus (the Pope obeyed, not the President) and the end of state financing provided to the Church.
A secular society was desired, epitomized by Azaña’s phrase: “Spain has ceased to be Catholic.” This led to the first government crisis, with two Catholic ministers resigning: Maura (Governance) and Alcalá Zamora (President). Granting women the right to vote was also controversial. Socialist attorney Victoria Kent opposed it, aligning with women who believed voting was conditioned by traditional religious education, thus giving more power to the right. Clara Campoamor passionately defended it, arguing that women voters and equal political rights for women were essential to a modern society. The possibility of establishing autonomous governments was also a point of contention, with centralists disagreeing. The Constitution was adopted by a vast majority, if not by consensus, and the Azaña government attempted to put it into practice. Alcalá Zamora was named President of the Republic, taking office until 1936.
III. The Republican-Socialist Biennium (1931-1933): Reforms and Conflicts
From 1931 to 1933, with three socialist ministers and Azaña as Prime Minister, the government attempted reforms to modernize Spain. Many reforms were hampered by opposition from both the radical left and right. A major problem was the attempt to secularize society, known as the religious question. Freedom of worship was proclaimed, state funding for worship was suppressed, divorce and civil marriage were introduced, the Jesuits were dissolved, and religious instruction was banned. Sectors of the Catholic Church reacted against what they saw as aggression by the Republic, while trade union sectors reacted with violence against religious figures. Convents and religious buildings were burned. The right opposed the political autonomy statute drafted for Catalonia, which was approved by 99% of Catalan voters in August 1931. Submitted to the courts for discussion, it faced right-wing opposition and amendments that delayed its approval until 1932, after General Sanjurjo’s coup attempt. The Statute established the Generalitat, Catalonia’s own parliament and government, leading to economic and social competition with the central government, and the rise of Esquerra Republicana, a Catalan nationalist party. Agrarian, educational, and army reforms were also attempted.
- Agrarian Reform: Expropriation of large estates (over 200 hectares of irrigated land or over 10 hectares of rainfed land), uncultivated farms, and poorly cultivated farms were targeted. However, results were limited, with few hectares expropriated and only 12,000 peasant families settled.
- Education Reform: The government aimed to guarantee the right to education, with a focus on primary education. The education budget was increased by over 50%, and free, compulsory, secular, and coeducational schooling was introduced.
- Army Reform: Azaña sought to democratize the army, ending its excessive size and influence. Military courts were reformed, and officers were required to obey civil law.
Social conflict persisted throughout the biennium, not only from the right (Sanjurjo’s 1932 coup attempt) but also from anarchist and peasant insurrections. The CNT (anarcho-syndicalist trade union) was radicalized, leading to increased strikes, land occupations, and serious fighting. Due to the escalating social unrest, Azaña resigned in 1933.