The Second Industrial Revolution and its Impact: A Historical Overview
The Dawn of the Second Industrial Revolution
Industry entered a new phase known as the Second Industrial Revolution. Key changes included:
- New energy sources: electricity and petroleum.
- Emerging industrial powers: the United Kingdom, Germany, and Japan.
- Shift from textiles to steel, chemicals, and electricity.
- New transportation: cars, planes, and electric locomotives.
- Telecommunications advancements: telephones and radios.
The Age of Science and Progress
The Second Industrial Revolution was deeply connected to research, leading to unprecedented scientific advancements:
- Biology: Darwin’s theory of evolution.
- Medicine: Pasteur and Koch’s contributions to microbiology, antisepsis, and anesthesia.
- Physics: Progress in electricity.
- Chemistry: The periodic table and synthetic products revolutionized industry.
- Social Sciences: Development of economics and sociology.
The Rise of Big Capitalism
A Great Depression from 1873 to 1898, marked by declining prices and rising unemployment, led to the emergence of large-scale financial capitalism:
- Business concentration: Failures of small and medium enterprises led to large industrial and financial monopolies.
- New work organization: Reduced production costs through series manufacturing.
- Protectionism: Replaced the free trade of earlier industrialization.
This large-scale capitalism fostered a nascent consumer society with mass-produced goods and new marketing techniques like advertising and hire purchase.
Key Terms and Concepts
Geopolitics and Conflict
- Eastern Question: Competition between Russia and Austria over Ottoman territories in the Balkans, with France and Britain aiming to maintain the status quo.
- Colonial Exploitation: Using native populations and territories solely for the benefit of the controlling power.
- Imperialism: Expanding national authority through territorial conquest and establishing economic and political control.
- Colonialism: A form of imperialism where controlled areas are formally declared colonies or protectorates.
- Napoleonic Wars (1803-1815): Conflicts involving Napoleon’s French Empire and various European alliances.
- War of the Sixth Coalition: The coalition that ultimately defeated Napoleon and exiled him to Elba.
- Guerrilla Warfare: Unconventional combat using small, mobile groups against a larger, more formal army.
Social and Political Movements
- Socialism: Advocated for societal transformation through reforms and political action by the working class.
- Labor Union: An association of workers defending their interests and seeking better working conditions.
- Nationalism: A modern ideology and social movement focused on the nation.
- Carlist Wars: Civil wars in Spain where pretenders fought for the throne.
- The Glorious Revolution (1868): Deposed Queen Isabella II in Spain.
Key Figures and Institutions
- Espartero, Prince of Vergara: A Spanish general and political figure.
- Wellington: An Anglo-Irish soldier and statesman.
- The Spanish Constitution of Cadiz: Limited the king’s power and established rights.
Political Ideologies and Concepts
- Liberalism: Prioritizes individual liberty as the most important political goal.
- Absolute Monarchy: Unrestricted monarchical power.
- Francophiles: Spaniards who collaborated with the French occupation.
- Pronouncement: Military uprising against the government.
- Salic Law: Excluded women from inheriting the French throne.
- Creole: A person of Spanish descent born in a Spanish colony.
- Sovereignty: A theory of power, with variations from absolute monarchy to popular sovereignty.
- Federated State: Formed by regions or states with significant autonomy.
- Oligarchy: A small group holding significant power and influence within an organization.