The Second Industrial Revolution and Imperialism (1870-1914)

Posted on May 17, 2024 in Geography

Politics and International Relations

Political Systems

  • Parliamentary Systems (Western Europe): Many countries adopted universal male suffrage while suffragette movements arose, claiming the vote for women (achieved in Finland – 1906, and Norway – 1913). In addition, the United States adopted universal male suffrage, and Japan established a parliamentary system.
  • Autocratic Systems (Central and Eastern Europe):
  • Austro-Hungarian Empire (multiple nationalities): Beginning in 1867, it became a dual monarchy (crowns of Austria and Hungary), retaining a common foreign policy and the figure of the emperor.
  • Russian Empire: Approved emancipation of serfs (1861). It was ruled by an autocratic system in which parliament had no power.
  • Ottoman Empire: Maintained autocratic rule over people of multiple nationalities.

The International Situation

The UK continued to be the strongest power (commercial and financial) – Victorian Era (1837-1901). Then, it lost its industrial primacy in favor of Germany and the US. After unification, Germany became the second most important economic power (under the reign of William II – 1888-1914), and France remained among the greatest powers. Mediterranean countries and autocratic systems experienced lesser growth. Outside Europe:

  • After the Civil War (1861-1865): The US colonized central prairies (American West), and Northwestern cities were quickly industrialized. It became a leading industrial power.
  • In Japan: The Meiji Revolution (1868-1912) was caused by the replacement of feudal monarchy by a constitutional parliamentary system and the triumph of Westernization. Economic reforms led to rapid industrialization (Japan, a major power in the Pacific).

European Alliance Systems

  • Bismarckian Alliance Systems (1871-1890): A set of alliances (secret diplomacy) promoted by Chancellor Otto von Bismarck. The objective was to isolate France, at enmity with Germany, and to prevent its alliance with Russia against Germany. After being in force for almost twenty years, these alliance systems finally failed.
  • Peace Through Strength (1891-1914): Peace was maintained, but the European countries rearmed and formed two alliance blocs: The Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy) and the Triple Entente (France, Russia, Great Britain).

The Second Industrial Revolution (1870-1914)

New Sources of Energy (End of the 19th Century)

  • Oil: Used to move engines which worked with oil derivatives (diesel, gasoline).
  • Electricity: Used for lighting and to drive engines (invention of accumulator and transformer – 1897). Allowed energy to be transported. End of industry’s location next to energy sources.

Changes in Work Organization

  • Taylorism (Frederick Taylor): Aimed to achieve maximum work efficiency (way of carrying tasks determined, time needed clocked, and production incentives granted).
  • Fordism (Henry Ford): Initiated mass production and the need for enormous factories (work organized in assembly lines: each worker/task, product placed in front of him by a conveyor belt). Performance was increased, and products were sold at a lower price.

Leading Industrial Sectors

  • Metallurgy (use of Bessemer converter – 1856, steel obtained from iron): It incorporated new metals (copper – used in the electrical industry, aluminum – obtained with electricity). The chemical industry elaborated petroleum products (dyes, plastics).
  • Electrical Equipment and Mechanics (manufactured sewing machines, cars, bikes, locomotives, first airplanes): They were related to textiles (artificial fibers and dyes to preserve food by using hermetically sealed cans).

Developments in the Economy and Capitalism

New Means of Transport and Communication

  • Means of transport progressed. Electricity applied to railways (Siemens, 1879), trams and underground, and the internal combustion engine led to the birth of cars (Benz, 1866; Diesel, 1893), improved navigation, and began aviation (Wright Brothers, 1903).

Infrastructures improved due to the completion of the Panama Canal (cheap transport between the Atlantic and Pacific – 1914). The extension of the railway network promoted the expansion of the US (west), Russia (east), and territorial integration in other countries.

  • Communications progressed: inventions – telephone (Meucci, 1869), phonograph (Edison, 1876), cinematograph (Lumière Brothers, 1895), radio (Tesla, 1897).

Agricultural Activities

  • Agriculture: Increased yields (use of chemical fertilizers and fodder). Work facilitated by machines driven by electric and combustion engines. New techniques (pasteurization, canning, freezing – food preserved). Progress in transportation (cheap product distribution and area’s specialization in the most suitable products for sale on the world market).
  • Domestic Trade: New systems to sell increased production (department stores – wide variety, cheap) and techniques (advertising, sales, mail-order). International trade acquired a global dimension (improved transport methods and growth of industrial production). Trade protectionism and conquest of colonial empires (need for markets that supplied raw materials and purchased industrial goods).

Birth of Finance Capitalism

  • Financial Concentration: Led to the emergence of large banks (Lloyd’s Bank, Deutsche Bank), which intensified relationships with industrial enterprises (granted loans or participated as shareholders).

The Social Consequences of the Second Industrial Revolution

Population and Urban Growth

Corporate Concentration: Dominated the market (eliminated competition among companies). The cartel, the trust, and the holding were created (kinds of concentration). As a result, antitrust laws had to be created.

Between 1870 and 1914, the European population grew from 300 to 440 million.

  • Emigration Abroad: (Improved and cheap transport). It originated from the UK, Ireland, and Scandinavia, later affecting all of Europe. Main destinations were the US, Australia, Latin America, etc. It favored recipient countries (needed settlers) and migrant-sending countries (reduced unemployment and social conflict).
  • Cities Increased Population: (Home for a third or half of the population). They transformed their appearance (improved hygiene conditions – sewers, paving, rubbish collection, and adoption of innovations – lightning, underground, electric trams).

Social Developments

  • Labor Movement: Gained affiliates (states recognized freedom of assembly and association and legalized workers’ associations). Laborers’ parties emerged (aimed to access political power and promote democratic and social reforms), such as the German Social Democratic Party (SPD) in 1875. Labor internationalism revived (formation of the 2nd International or Socialist International, a federation of socialist and labor parties based on Marxist principles – 1889, Paris). Marxist purists (power – revolutions) clashed with revisionists (power – elections). It also condemned capitalism, imperialism, and war.
  • Progress of the Proletariat: Pressure (labor movement and leftist parties) led many states (Germany, France, UK) to formulate laws that regulated hours and established protection measures (minimum wages, accident compensation, etc.) – field of employment. Mass production lowered prices of goods (elevated the proletariat’s capacity for consumption and quality of life) – economic field.

Imperialism and Its Causes

From 1870, European colonial expansion turned to Africa, Asia, and the Pacific and entered imperialism, which implied military, political, and economic control of a European minority over dominated territories. *Colonialism (dominate economic resources of colonies). Causes:

  • Political and Strategic: Possession of colonies assured power and international prestige of countries or allowed trade routes and control of strategic territories.
  • Demographic: Colonies provided territories where excess population could be sent to reduce unemployment and relieve international social tensions.
  • Economic: Increased production (2nd Industrial Revolution) required having territories that supplied raw materials for industry and purchased manufactured products without customs barriers. Colonies provided cheap labor and places to invest capital.

The Forms of Colonial Rule

Ideological: Ideologies manipulated social Darwinism and proclaimed the superiority of the white race along with its mission to civilize the rest of the world.

Major imperialist powers (Great Britain, France) joined by other EU countries (Germany, Belgium, Spain, etc.).

  • Concessions: (Commercial advantages obtained from independent countries). Case of China (territory divided among great powers into ‘areas of influence’).
  • Protectorates: (Maintained indigenous governments, but colonial power controlled foreign policy, army, exploitation of resources). Case of India and Egypt.
  • The Colonies: (Territories under the sovereignty of the metropole). Those of position controlled strategic points (British Cape Colony). Settler colonialism involved large-scale settling of a foreign population and were self-administered (British dominion of Canada, Australia, etc.). Exploitation colonialism (mainly indigenous), colonies administered by the metropole (exclusive right to exploit resources). Case of the Belgian colony of Congo.

Imperialism in the 19th Century (II). Colonial Expansion.

The Formation of the Colonial Empires

  • The ‘Scramble for Africa’: European presence in Africa had been limited to coastal points until 1870. Then, major powers set out to explore the continent and create empires. Meeting at the Berlin Conference in 1884 (to prevent clashes), they established rules for the occupation of the continent – coastal strip interior, provided that effective control was demonstrated. Recognition of free navigation on the Niger and Congo Rivers and free trade in Central Africa. Accelerated occupation in Africa. The UK tried to form a continuous colonial strip from Cairo to the Cape. France extended between Senegal and Somalia. And other countries (Belgium, Italy, Spain, etc.) completed the division of the continent.
  • Imperialism in Asia, Oceania, and America:
  • Asia: China and Persia (systems of concession and distribution in areas prevailed). Certain territories were taken by the UK (India, Burma), France (Indochina), and the Netherlands (Indonesia). Russia incorporated Siberia and extended its rule towards India and China; Japan tried to annex Korea and Manchuria, clashing with China and Russia. The US drove Spain out of the Philippines.
  • Oceania: The UK incorporated Australia into its empire, and the US occupied archipelagos (Hawaii).
  • America: The US extended to Cuba and Puerto Rico and occupied territory (Panama Canal’s construction).

The Consequences of Imperialism

  • Colonialism (Positive for Metropoles): Political power, wealth (raw materials and markets), social peace, and knowledge of other civilizations. It intensified international, political, and economic confrontations that led to World War I.
  • Dominated Nations (Colonialism Negative): Local governments removed or controlled by foreigners, and internal conflicts were aggravated (arbitrary drawing of borders). Traditional economy altered (colonizing powers replaced subsistence agriculture with export agriculture); prevented industrialization, imposed unequal trade, created infrastructures. Society was divided into a foreign minority (controlled government, wealth) and the indigenous majority (forced to work). The cultures of colonized peoples were displaced by foreign cultures of colonizing powers.

The First World War (I). Causes

Contenders

It broke out in Europe in 1914. It covered a large territorial extension and was known as the Great War. The contenders were grouped into two camps:

  • Central Powers: Germany, Austria-Hungary, Ottoman Empire. Bulgaria joined later.
  • Allies or Triple Entente: France, Russia, UK, and Serbia. The US joined, among others.

The Causes of the Conflict

The Root Causes

  • Political Conflicts: Territorial reasons (France claimed Alsace-Lorraine from Germany, and Italy and Austria-Hungary disputed the territories of Istria and Trento). Nationalistic reasons (Austro-Hungarian and Turkish empires confronted in the Balkan Wars – 1912-1913). Other reasons (colonial clashes between imperialist powers for the control of certain territories).
  • Economic Rivalries: Increased due to commercial competition. France and the UK distrusted the growth of the German economy and its presence on colonial markets.

The Spark of War

  • The war initiated due to the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand (heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary) in Sarajevo (1914) by a Serbian nationalist student. As a result, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia (supported by Russia), initiating a system of alliances.

The First World War (II). Events and Consequences.

The Development of the Conflict

Characteristics of the War

  • Vast Territorial Extension: Sixteen nations took part, some having extensive colonial empires.
  • Use of New Offensive Weapons: (Toxic gases, mines, machine guns, etc.).
  • New Defense Systems: (Trenches).
  • New Forms of Combat: (Psychological warfare). The war also triggered economic and social transformations: the economy of contending countries became focused on the production of war material. Society suffered hardships (food rationing, bombings), women joined the workforce to replace men.

Phases and Events

  • The War of Movement (1914): The war began on both Eastern and Western Fronts. Germany attempted a flash victory over France (concentrate forces of the Eastern north and defeat Russia). But France resisted at the Battle of the Marne, and the rapid Russian advance forced Germany to send troops to the Eastern Front. At the end, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers.
  • Trench Warfare (1915-1916): Fronts were stabilized along extensive lines of trenches (absence of decisive victory). Offensives were launched at Verdun, Somme, etc. The war became a global conflict with the entry of Bulgaria, Italy, Portugal, Japan, etc.
  • The War Ends (1917-1918): The US joined in 1917 (side of the Allies), and Russia withdrew after the triumph of the communist revolution and the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. In 1918, the Allies launched offensives (progressive surrender of Central Powers). US President Woodrow Wilson set out the ‘Fourteen Points’ (principles for world peace).

Modern Architecture

New Materials

  • Iron, steel, glass, concrete used (cheap, rapid construction of buildings). They were first used in functional buildings (bridges, factories, markets) as they were rejected by traditional architects (industrial products devoid of beauty), but they spread.

Architecture in the United States. Skyscrapers (Born in the Chicago School)

  • The fire of 1871 required the city’s reconstruction, creating high wood (free buildings). The solution was found in the use of concrete, iron, and glass, and the incorporation of the elevator.

Architecture in Europe. Modernism

A new architectural trend spread by means of universal exhibitions (Eiffel Tower – Universal Exhibition 1889). Modernism (1890-1910) was an aesthetic movement (Art Nouveau – France, Modern Style – Great Britain) that attempted to reconcile useful objects with art, using new materials, seeking beauty through the use of undulating and asymmetric shapes inspired by nature. It also aimed to integrate all the arts, decorating façades, interiors, and designing furniture.

Impressionism and Post-Impressionism

  • Impressionism (Around 1870): A group of painters began painting outdoors to capture the immediate effects of light and the atmosphere. They used small, thin brushstrokes and overlapping pure color. They chose themes hitherto considered secondary (landscapes, urban scenes, dancers, etc.). The sculptor Auguste Rodin was close to Impressionism as he broke away from the prevailing Academy art and was interested in light and movement.
  • Post-Impressionism (Around 1886): Revised Impressionism by creating new approaches that constitute the precedent of the new avant-garde movements. Paul Cézanne decomposed objects into geometric figures, Paul Gauguin used strong, flat colors, Van Gogh used pure and unreal colors (curved and thick brushstrokes).

The First Avant-Garde Movements

  • Fauvism (1905 – Henri Matisse, The Dance or The Green Stripe): Attached importance to drawing and used color flatly, independent from reality.
  • Expressionism (1905): It wanted to evoke moods and emotions, using colors arbitrarily and representing introverted figures and tragic, forbidden, demonic, or fantastic themes.
  • Cubism (1907 – Pablo Ruiz Picasso, The Young Ladies of Avignon): Analytic Cubism decomposed objects into geometric forms and represented them from several points of view. Synthetic Cubism built objects by combining independent elements.