The Russian Revolution: Tsarist Collapse and Bolshevik Power (1900-1924)
Tsarist Russia: Features and Instability (1900–1917)
Political, Economic, and Social Features of Tsarist Russia
Tsarist Russia was an autocratic regime ruled by Tsar Nicholas II. Politically, it lacked democratic institutions and repressed opposition parties. The Duma had very limited power. Economically, industrialization was uneven, and most of the population were poor peasants. Socially, society remained hierarchical, with the aristocracy dominating and the peasantry living in poverty. The country suffered from social inequality and backwardness compared to Western Europe.
The 1905 Revolution and Political Changes
The 1905 Revolution led to the October Manifesto and the creation of the Duma, a parliamentary institution. However, the Tsar quickly reasserted control, and the Duma remained weak. Political reforms were superficial, and repression of opposition continued. In the long term, the revolution revealed the vulnerability of the regime but did not resolve its structural problems.
Impact of World War I on Russia’s Domestic Situation
World War I had a devastating impact on Russia. The army suffered heavy losses, food shortages became widespread, inflation rose dramatically, and public confidence in the monarchy collapsed. These conditions contributed directly to the outbreak of the February Revolution.
The Role of Rasputin in the Monarchy’s Fall
Rasputin, a mystic with influence over Tsarina Alexandra, was seen as a symbol of corruption and incompetence. His presence at court undermined the monarchy’s credibility, especially while Tsar Nicholas II was away commanding troops. This damaged public trust in the regime.
The Revolutions of 1917 and Bolshevik Ascent
The Concept of Dual Power (Dvoevlastie)
After the February Revolution, a situation known as ‘dual power’ (dvoevlastie) emerged, in which the Provisional Government and the Petrograd Soviet both claimed authority. While the Provisional Government held official state power, the Soviets had the loyalty of workers and soldiers, leading to political instability.
Lenin’s Key Demands in the April Theses
In his April Theses, Lenin demanded:
- An immediate end to Russia’s involvement in World War I.
- Land redistribution to peasants.
- The transfer of all power to the Soviets.
These radical proposals gained significant support among the working class and soldiers.
Bolshevik Strategy for Gaining Support
The Bolsheviks gained support by presenting clear and appealing promises such as “Peace, Land, and Bread.” They positioned themselves as the only party willing to withdraw from the war, address land reform, and give real power to the Soviets.
Reasons for the October 1917 Takeover
The Bolsheviks decided to take power in October 1917 due to several factors:
- The Provisional Government failed to withdraw from WWI, which remained unpopular.
- There was increasing support for the Soviets and Bolsheviks due to slogans like “Peace, Land and Bread.”
- The Bolsheviks had gained control of key Soviets (especially Petrograd and Moscow) and were well-organized under Lenin and Trotsky.
- The country was facing social unrest, hunger, and political chaos, which made revolution seem necessary.
Execution of the October Revolution
In October 1917, the Bolsheviks organized an armed insurrection in Petrograd. Led by Trotsky, they stormed the Winter Palace and arrested members of the Provisional Government. The takeover was relatively bloodless but marked a significant turning point in Russian history.
Civil War, War Communism, and the NEP
Main Features of War Communism (1918–1921)
War Communism involved:
- Nationalizing industry.
- Requisitioning grain from peasants (forced grain requisitions).
- Banning private trade.
- Enforcing strict central control.
While it aimed to support the Red Army during the Civil War, it led to widespread famine and social unrest.
Composition and Goals of the White Forces
The White forces were a coalition of monarchists, liberals, and socialist revolutionaries united in their opposition to the Bolsheviks. Their main goal was to overthrow the Soviet regime, though their lack of unity hindered their success.
Introduction of the New Economic Policy (NEP)
Lenin introduced the NEP in 1921 to stabilize the economy and calm social tensions after the harsh policies of War Communism. The NEP allowed some private trade and small businesses while maintaining state control over major industries.
Contrasting War Communism and the NEP
War Communism (1918–1921) aimed to support the Red Army during the Civil War through forced grain requisitions, nationalization of industry, and prohibition of private trade. It led to famine and unrest.
The New Economic Policy (NEP), introduced in 1921, was a pragmatic retreat. Unlike War Communism, which relied on forced requisitions and total state control, the NEP reintroduced elements of a market economy. It allowed small-scale private trade and agriculture to stimulate economic recovery while the state retained control over major sectors. The NEP helped stabilize the economy and succeeded in reviving agriculture and trade, improving the standard of living for many Russians, but caused ideological divisions.
The Foundation of the Soviet Union (USSR)
Significance of the USSR Foundation in 1922
The foundation of the USSR in 1922 marked the formal establishment of a new federal socialist state. It unified Russia, Ukraine, Belarus, and the Transcaucasian Federation under a centralized communist regime based in Moscow.
The USSR’s Nominally Federal Structure
Although the USSR was formally a union of republics with autonomy, in practice, power was concentrated in Moscow and controlled by the Communist Party, making the federation more symbolic than real.
Historical Summary: Tsarist Collapse to Soviet State
At the beginning of the 20th century, Russia was an autocratic empire characterized by Absolutism, a backward economy, and huge social inequality. Political opposition grew among the educated classes, inspired by liberal and Marxist ideas. The 1905 Revolution followed Russia’s defeat in the Russo-Japanese War and forced the Tsar to make limited reforms, but the regime remained in power, notably after the Bloody Sunday Massacre.
During World War I, the situation worsened with military defeats, famine, and growing unrest. In February 1917, mass protests and army mutinies led to Tsar Nicholas II’s abdication. A Provisional Government was formed, but it shared power with the radical Soviets (workers’ and soldiers’ councils). Lenin returned from exile and demanded “all power to the Soviets.”
In October 1917, the Bolsheviks, led by Lenin, overthrew the Provisional Government in the October Revolution. They introduced radical reforms: ending the war (Treaty of Brest-Litovsk), redistributing land, nationalizing banks, and creating the Cheka (secret police). In 1918, they dissolved the democratically elected Constituent Assembly by force, driven by the slogan “Peace, Land, and Bread.”
Between 1918 and 1923, a Civil War broke out between the Bolsheviks (Red Army) and various anti-communist forces (White Army), supported by foreign powers (such as the United Kingdom). Despite this intervention, the Reds, led by Trotsky, won the war. Other communist revolutions in Europe failed.
In 1922, the USSR (Union of Soviet Socialist Republics) was established as a federal but highly centralized state under Communist Party control. To recover from the civil war, Lenin introduced the New Economic Policy (NEP), allowing limited private trade. Lenin died in 1924, leaving a power struggle between Stalin and Trotsky.