The Russian Revolution: From Tsarism to Socialism
The Russian Revolution
Tsarist Russia
The Tsar ruled an empire with absolute power, derived from God. This autocratic regime was not subject to any constitution or parliament. The Tsar had a loyal bureaucracy, army, and the Orthodox Church, a major pillar of Tsarism. The agrarian economy featured communal land ownership (Mir) alongside private ownership by the nobility and kulaks. Peasant life was impoverished, with serfdom persisting in some areas. Agricultural technology was backward, and production barely sustained the population. Concentrated industries, reliant on foreign capital, employed many former peasants who had migrated from rural poverty to industrial cities, enduring low wages and precarious conditions.
Revolution of 1905
During the reign of Nicholas II, social and political unrest grew due to worsening living conditions and economic hardship, exacerbated by corruption and the Russo-Japanese War. In January 1905, a revolutionary movement erupted against Tsarist oppression, demanding improved living conditions. A demonstration in St. Petersburg outside the Winter Palace was violently suppressed by the army on “Bloody Sunday”. Following this, the Tsar implemented timid reforms, including Stolypin’s land reform proposal.
February Revolution 1917
Russia’s entry into World War I catalyzed further revolutionary activity. The revolution unfolded in two stages: the February Revolution, which established a bourgeois parliamentary republic, and the October Revolution, which led to socialist rule and the world’s first socialist republic. Dire living conditions, military defeats, and discontent among the populace fueled the revolution. Soldier mutinies, lack of authority, and chaos at court emboldened the Duma’s opposition. Strikes, street demonstrations, and riots erupted. Armed workers formed the Red Guard, and the Soviets were revived, uniting revolutionary forces. A provisional government promised political and social reforms. While the bourgeoisie aimed to consolidate a Western-style parliamentary regime, the people demanded broader changes: an end to the war, land redistribution, and improved working conditions. The provisional government, dominated by bourgeois parties, faced increasing pressure. Lenin’s return from exile further radicalized the situation, advocating for worker control.
October Revolution 1917
The Bolsheviks, advocating armed insurrection, overthrew the provisional government and consolidated Soviet power. The provisional government was arrested bloodlessly, and the Council of People’s Commissars was formed. Key measures included: a) Decree on Peace; b) Decree on Land, confiscating land from the crown, nobility, and church for redistribution to peasants; c) Decree on Nationalities, granting self-determination to the peoples of the Russian Empire; and d) worker control over large enterprises and nationalization of banks.
War Communism
During the war, production declined, prompting the government to implement War Communism. Widespread expropriations, socialization of industry and trade, and a shift to barter exchange occurred. Banks, internal and external trade, transport companies, and large enterprises were nationalized. Proletarian working conditions became harsh, with militarized production. Union rights were restricted, and strikes were banned. Agriculture was geared towards the war effort, with forced crop requisitioning, price controls, and taxes in kind.
The New Economic Policy (NEP)
The NEP aimed to boost production and improve living standards after the war. Working conditions eased, unions regained independence and the right to strike, production was demilitarized, and wages were introduced. Forced requisitioning was abolished, and farmers could choose between communal and individual farming. This temporary return to capitalist elements served as a transition stage towards socialism. Economic success was not without its challenges.
Stalin and Socialism in One Country
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