The Russian Revolution and the Formation of the Soviet Union
The Russian Empire: Pre-Revolutionary Context
Russia was a vast empire with a policy of Russification, encompassing its administration, language, and religion. The country lagged behind European states in industrial development, which was notably poor. Sovereignty rested with a single person, the Czar, against whom no political activity was allowed.
The 1905 Revolution: A Precursor
The revolution began in 1905 following a brutally suppressed demonstration. This event significantly devalued the image of the Czar and sparked numerous strikes. Assemblies formed by factory workers were organized, mobilizing the lower classes. In this revolution, the bourgeoisie was weak, and the working class proposed a takeover, allying itself with the peasantry.
The 1917 Revolutions: Overthrowing the Czar
In 1917, the Czar was overthrown, and a provisional government took power with the aim of holding elections. However, this government refused to accept petitions and peace negotiations, consequently losing much support. In this volatile situation, Lenin convinced his party to stage a coup, and the Bolsheviks subsequently came to power.
Bolshevik Rule and the Russian Civil War
The new Bolshevik government abolished and distributed private property, banned wage labor, and made peace with Germany after the end of the First World War. A council covering all areas of government was envisioned, headed by the three key figures of the revolution: Lenin, Trotsky, and Stalin. A declaration of rights was drafted, and the state was established as a federal republic, eventually adopting a constitution. This government also faced significant opposition, whose disputes eventually led to a devastating civil war. The war ended with a Bolshevik victory, achieved due to several factors:
- Disunity of their adversaries
- Strong worker support
- Creation of a large, disciplined army
- Effective political censorship
- Nationalization of the economy
The Third International and Stalin’s Consolidation of Power
The Third International (Comintern) was designed as a revolutionary party to end global social democracy and expand communism. It mandated that old parties reject and expel reformists and accept the Bolsheviks’ policies, which led to a significant division within the labor movement. Lenin then launched the New Economic Policy (NEP), which introduced capitalist elements, creating a climate of economic and political debate. This period also saw the formation of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR).
Following Lenin’s death, Stalin rose to power, systematically driving out competitors and establishing a dictatorship characterized by:
- A pervasive cult of personality
- An unwavering emphasis on Marxism and the ideal of class struggle
- The Third International becoming a tool of Russian service
- The imposition of a reign of terror, repression, and purges
Stalin replaced the NEP, and his economic policy led to the centralization of the economy, aiming to industrialize the country in the shortest possible time and at any cost. He prioritized heavy industry and collective-owned farms.
The Great Depression: A Global Economic Crisis (1929)
This period also saw the major global economic crisis of 1929. The U.S. was experiencing population growth, and its citizens contracted loans and speculated heavily on the New York Stock Exchange (NYSE). Profits generated by industry were often not reinvested but used to multiply gains in the stock market. When sales changed, the stock market situation caused widespread panic; everyone wanted to sell to minimize losses. The pervasive feeling of fear hastened the market’s fall, which repeated with greater intensity, ruining millions of families.