The Russian Revolution and Societal Changes After WWI
Consequences of World War I: Political and Territorial
The Peace of Paris resulted in a profound territorial restructuring of Europe. First, there was the dismemberment of the great empires, and new states were created. In addition to the territorial changes, political transformations also occurred. Democracy was gaining ground: Germany and Austria, as well as some new states, proclaimed democratic republics. Universal male suffrage was introduced in almost all of Europe.
Social Changes After World War I
The number of new businesses grew thanks to the benefits of the war. Those who profited from the conflict boasted of their economic power to people in need. Europe’s colonial hegemony began to be questioned. Women took on a more prominent role in society, wore more comfortable apparel, and adopted shorter hairstyles. Women’s emancipation was one of the major issues of the interwar period.
The Soviet Revolution and the USSR (1917-1941)
1. Tsarist Russia
1.1 A Vast and Lagging Empire
The Tsar held absolute power that came from God, and the political regime was an autocracy. The Tsar ruled the empire and was not subject to any constitution, nor did he have any accountability to a parliament. The foundations of his power were a loyal bureaucracy, a large army, and the Orthodox Church.
The Russian Empire had an agricultural economy with private land ownership in the hands of a powerful nobility and a less powerful class of landowners, the kulaks. The lives of farmers were very poor. Agriculture was technically backward, and production was very low; it was not enough to feed the entire population.
Capitalism and industry had become pervasive in the western part of the empire. It was a very concentrated industry, largely dependent on foreign capital, mainly French. Industrialization led to the emergence of industrial workers. Many were former peasants who had migrated to the new industrial cities to find work. Most worked in large companies, were paid low wages, and lived in precarious conditions.
1.2 The Growth of the Opposition
Opposition to Tsarism grew. This was a result of the industrialization process, the diffusion of liberal ideas, and new workerist doctrines, such as anarchism and Marxism.
In Russia, there were popular-rooted movements known as populists. For example, the group called The People’s Will proclaimed the destruction of Tsarism. Among populist circles, anarchism took root, with prominent intellectuals such as Bakunin and Kropotkin. They created organizations such as Land and Freedom, which advocated for the distribution of land among peasants and direct action against the autocracy.
At the end of the 19th century, bourgeois liberal parties were created, such as the Constitutional Democratic Party and the Russian Socialist Party. The influence of Marxism resulted in the Russian Social Democratic Party, with Georgi Plekhanov as its inspiration and Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov (Lenin) as its leader. It split into two sectors: the Bolsheviks (majority) and the Mensheviks (minority).
1.3 The Revolution of 1905 and the Attempted Reforms
During the reign of Nicholas II, social and political turmoil grew due to poor living conditions and increasing corruption in the court, where Rasputin held significant influence. Economic hardship worsened due to the Russo-Japanese War. In 1905, a revolutionary movement broke out against oppression and social injustice. The revolution began with a demonstration in front of the Winter Palace, where the Tsar lived, and was suppressed by the army. This day became known as Bloody Sunday.
All political groups opposed to the system, and even a part of the Orthodox clergy, participated in the revolution. The insurrection and mutiny of the crew of the battleship Potemkin in the city of Odessa also had a great impact.
After the revolution, Tsar Nicholas II implemented some timid economic and political reforms. He created the Duma (parliament) and appointed Minister Stolypin, who proposed land reform. However, these attempts fell far short of transforming the social and political structures.
2. The February Revolution of 1917
2.1 The Impact of World War I
During World War I, most factories were transformed into war industries. Products became scarce, prices rose, and the purchasing power of wage earners fell significantly. Military defeats against Germany occurred, which Russia could not prevent. There was no confidence in the Tsar, and Rasputin’s influence in the court grew. Given this situation, the revolutionary fervor flared up again. The military and economic disaster caused a more intense revolution.