The Russian and Soviet Revolution: A Historical Analysis

Posted on Jan 4, 2025 in History

The Russian and Soviet Revolution: Introduction

The Russian Revolution of 1917 was a historical event of great importance. It gave rise to a new country, the USSR, with the first communist society. This country became the primary and most important socialist country in the world until its disappearance in 1991. The Russian Revolution shares several similarities with the French Revolution of 1789. For example, the influence of both extended beyond their borders. However, while the French Revolution signified a step from absolutism to a liberal system, the Russian Revolution led directly to a socialist state.

Russia Before the Revolution

At the beginning of the 19th and 20th centuries, Russia was in a position of very backward political, economic, and social development. Economically, Russia’s situation was backward and poor compared to most European capitalist countries. Industrial development was limited to some cities, and the majority of the population was rural. Agricultural properties were mostly owned by the nobility, and the peasants lived in conditions of serfdom. The economic and social system was typical of the old regime, and industrialization was limited to specific geographical areas, often with foreign capital.

Politically, Russia was still an absolute autocratic monarchy, where the Tsar was also the head of the Orthodox Church. The Tsar’s power was absolute, supported by the army and the church. Opposition to the Tsar and the general situation was formed by four groups:

  • Populists: A peasant movement that demanded a fairer distribution of land ownership.
  • Liberals: Bourgeois groups that wanted to end the privileges of the nobility and gain economic and political power.
  • Anarchists: Formed by peasants and workers, they advocated for violent action, including terrorist attacks.
  • Marxists: Composed of urban workers, they were divided into two currents:
    • Mensheviks (minority): They wanted a moderate revolution led by the bourgeoisie to create a worker’s state.
    • Bolsheviks (majority): They were more radical and disciplined, strictly following Marxist theories. Their goal was a socialist revolution led by the proletariat. Their main leader was Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov, known as Lenin.

The 1905 Revolution

Although unsuccessful, the 1905 Revolution was a precursor to the events of 1917. Economic hardship and the actions of various opposition groups created a climate of general discontent and protest against Tsarism. The main demands of the opposition included a fairer distribution of wealth, basic rights and freedoms, and a more liberal political system. This situation led to a series of demonstrations and popular protests that were eventually suppressed by the army. In 1905, the Soviets, or Councils, emerged. These were popular assemblies formed by workers and peasants who directed and organized the population.

The 1917 Revolutions

The February Revolution

Following the 1905 Revolution, the Tsar created a legislative assembly called the Duma and attempted some land reforms. However, these changes were insufficient to appease the opposition. The situation worsened significantly from 1914 when Russia entered World War I as an ally of Great Britain and France. The war was a disaster for Russia, with significant defeats that further damaged the economy. Food shortages and military losses increased opposition to the Tsar’s policies. This led to a new revolution in St. Petersburg in February 1917.

The direct causes of the revolution were the disastrous situation caused by the war, but also the economic, political, and social problems that existed before the war, as well as the actions of the opposition groups. The revolution began when the population took to the streets demanding an end to the war. Workers began a general strike, which was supported by soldiers. The Soviets, formed by workers, peasants, and soldiers, organized and took control of the country. The Tsar was forced to abdicate. The Duma formed a provisional government that began to implement political (freedoms) and social (improvements for workers) reforms. However, the decision to continue in World War I led many to follow the instructions of the Soviets rather than the new government.

The provisional government, led by a Menshevik (moderate), failed to implement deeper reforms and end the war. Meanwhile, the Bolsheviks, led by Lenin, gained strength, especially among the working class. Lenin argued that the February Revolution was insufficient and that a new revolution was needed to immediately end the war, overthrow the moderate government, and establish a proletarian state. This idea, shaped and led by Lenin, clashed with Kerensky, but the Bolsheviks gained support because Kerensky did not end the war. When the Bolsheviks controlled the Soviets of Moscow and St. Petersburg, Lenin considered it the right moment to overthrow Kerensky’s government and carry out a worker’s revolution.

The October Revolution

This was the most important moment of the Russian Revolution, transforming Russia into a new socialist state inspired by Marxist ideology. In October 1917, Lenin called for an uprising led by the Soviets, which were controlled by the Bolsheviks. The army and navy, along with armed workers, stormed the Winter Palace (the seat of the government). Kerensky fled, and Lenin took control. His primary mission was to organize a new socialist state. He organized a government called the Council of People’s Commissars, presided over by Lenin, which acted as the executive branch. The Congress of Soviets became the supreme legislative body. All these institutions followed the path of the dictatorship of the proletariat, controlled by the Bolshevik party, which became the Communist Party in 1918.

The first measures of the new government were:

  • Expropriation of land from the nobility, the church, and the crown, which was given to the peasants.
  • Self-determination for the peoples of the former Russian Empire.
  • Workers’ control of factories.
  • Closure of banks, which were nationalized.
  • Withdrawal from World War I. Lenin signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with Germany, where Russia lost significant territories: Finland, Poland, Ukraine, and the Baltic republics. This also meant the loss of economic resources. Although the treaty was detrimental to Russia, Lenin was forced to sign it to end the war.

Another important measure was the transfer of the capital from St. Petersburg to Moscow.

Civil War (1918-1922)

The revolution was successful in most of Russia, but there was resistance against the Bolsheviks. This led to a civil war between the Bolshevik government and the White Army, which included members of the Tsarist army and the privileged classes (church and nobility). The White Army received support from capitalist powers (Great Britain, USA, France) who wanted to prevent the spread of socialist revolutions in Europe. The Bolshevik government reorganized its army to defend the revolution. Trotsky was in charge of forming the new Red Army, which included political commissars to ensure the communist ideology of the soldiers. The Bolsheviks decided to execute the Tsar and his family. After invading Ukraine, the civil war ended with the victory of the Red Army (1921).

The civil war and the division of the country, along with foreign enemies, led to a critical economic situation. The Bolshevik government imposed a system called War Communism, which included strict measures to control the economy: nationalization of commerce, businesses, and transportation, prohibition of some workers’ rights, and orders from the government as if they were soldiers. These radical measures were rejected by part of the population. When the war ended, Lenin changed the economic policy to maintain popular support.

The USSR

The new economy of Russia was based on the NEP (New Economic Policy), which combined state-controlled economy with private property. This was intended as a temporary measure to achieve the total disappearance of private property in the long term. The goals of the NEP were to increase production, improve living conditions, and gain popular support for the government. In 1922, Russia became the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), which included most of the former Russian Empire, except for the three Baltic republics. The Communist Party controlled all aspects of political and social life in the new Soviet Union. Under the pretext of exercising the dictatorship of the proletariat, many basic freedoms disappeared or were limited: freedom of the press, expression, religion, etc. The country was not democratic.

Within the Communist Party, there were two currents: Lenin and Trotsky, who defended the expansion of the revolution outside of Russia, and Joseph Stalin, who believed that the priority was to consolidate communism within Russia. When Lenin died in 1924, a power struggle ensued over his successor and the direction of the country. The main issues were: the NEP (some members did not support it), foreign policy (expansion of the revolution or not), and the control of the party over the state. Although it seemed that Trotsky would be the successor, Stalin, through his political skills, gained more support and became the head of the party in 1928. Trotsky was exiled to Siberia and later expelled from the country.

The Stalinist Era

Stalin’s rule was nearly absolute until his death in 1953. This period was marked by a centralized government and Stalin’s authoritarian rule, both in the state and the Communist Party.

Economy

Stalin’s goal was to eliminate private property and create a fully industrialized society. He ended the NEP and implemented the Five-Year Plans and the collectivization of the entire economy. The Five-Year Plans represented absolute control of the economy by the state, focusing on agriculture and heavy industry. These two sectors were to be collectivized. The capital needed for industrial growth came from other sectors (agriculture, mining, etc.), which meant that workers’ living conditions did not improve. The state controlled most of the profits, which were used to boost industry. Agriculture was completely collectivized. This led to the creation of kolkhozes, cooperative farms where peasants worked on state-owned land. These changes were difficult to implement. Peasants who owned private land and enjoyed a better situation (kulaks) were punished for resisting collectivization. The first years were marked by food shortages and poor results. However, with the implementation of new Five-Year Plans, the USSR became an important agricultural and industrial power.

Interior Policy

The state and the party became practically the same thing, with Stalin exercising absolute control. Opposing opinions were prohibited, and all party members were forced to follow the official line of the leader, Stalin. The dictatorship of the proletariat became, in reality, the dictatorship of Stalin over the proletariat. Stalin considered all those who opposed him as enemies of the revolution. He began a process of eliminating his political opponents, which led to the purges, a period of terror in which many people were imprisoned, exiled, or executed for having different ideas from Stalin. The purges affected members of the party, the army, and the general population. It is estimated that nearly 3 million Russians died as victims of Stalinist terror. One of the victims was Trotsky, who was murdered on Stalin’s orders. Other aspects of political life in the USSR were propaganda, which exalted socialism and criticized its enemies (capitalism and fascism), and the cult of personality of Stalin, who was venerated as a god. The Soviets were the basis of the country’s policy. There were no strikes, and the Soviets were controlled by the state. In elections, only members of the Communist Party could be presented as candidates. The dictatorship of Stalin also affected the nationalist regions, whose demands for self-determination were repressed.

Exterior Policy

Internationally, the USSR was isolated from the rest of the world because the capitalist powers considered the socialist revolution a threat. For several years, countries like Great Britain tried to fight against the revolution, but eventually, they were forced to recognize the socialist state. One of Stalin’s main concerns was to defend the country from possible attacks, as it was the only country with a socialist system. Stalin tried to improve international relations and join the League of Nations, but this did not happen, and the USSR remained heavily armed. The situation changed with the rise of fascist regimes in Italy and, especially, in Germany, which were radical enemies of Soviet socialism. This led Stalin to seek alliances against the fascist countries. For example, he intervened in the Spanish Civil War (1936-1939), supporting the Republican government against the fascist forces of General Franco. However, the USSR did not find support among the Western democratic countries due to their distrust of socialism and their rejection of Stalin’s dictatorship. Surprisingly, Stalin ended up signing a pact with Hitler, his main enemy. This move had several reasons: only a dictator like Hitler could sign a pact with another dictator like Stalin; Stalin considered Hitler’s increasingly aggressive policy a risk and wanted to avoid an attack on the USSR; and both dictators had a common interest in occupying Poland. In 1939, Hitler and Stalin signed the German-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact. A month later, World War II began when Hitler attacked Poland, believing that the USSR would not intervene. However, Stalin also invaded part of Poland, and the two dictators divided the country. This pact of convenience between two dictators who hated each other ended in 1941 when Hitler attacked the USSR, which changed the course of the war.