The Road to World War I and the Russian Revolution (1885–1921)
The Origins of Global Conflict (1885–1914)
The Berlin Conference was held in 1885 to establish rules for the colonization of the African continent by European empires. However, the rise of power of the German Empire created conflicts between European countries. Morocco, in particular, created significant tension at the beginning of the 20th century, as European powers all sought to control it.
The System of Alliances and the Arms Race
Before World War I began, two opposing alliances were formed:
- The Triple Alliance (1882): The German Empire signed an agreement with Austro-Hungary and Italy.
- The Triple Entente (1907): France, Britain, and Russia signed a pact.
These conflicts fueled an arms race, where countries spent vast sums of money on manufacturing weapons, building warships, and strengthening their armies.
The Outbreak of World War I
The outbreak of the war occurred on June 28, 1914, when Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Austro-Hungarian empire, was assassinated in Sarajevo, the capital of Bosnia. This event led directly to WWI because, encouraged by the Germans, Austro-Hungary accused Serbia and declared war.
The declarations of war followed rapidly:
- Russia declared war on the Austro-Hungarian Empire to protect Serbia.
- Germany declared war on Russia and France.
- After the German Empire invaded Belgium, Britain declared war on Germany and the Austro-Hungarian Empire.
Phases of the Great War (1914–1918)
World War I (1914–1918) was divided into three main phases:
Phase 1: The War of Movement (1914)
This was a period where Germany sought to finish the war as quickly as possible on the Western Front. They attacked France through Belgium and Luxembourg. When they were 40 km from Paris, the British and French stopped them in the Battle of the Marne. Meanwhile, on the Eastern Front, Germany defeated the Russian Empire in the Battle of Tannenberg. In the Balkans, Serbia successfully stopped the Austro-Hungarian advance.
Phase 2: Trench Warfare (1915–1916)
This was the longest phase of the war. Due to technology, the war became immobile, with both sides creating extensive trenches. The Germans built more durable trenches than the British. Key battles during this phase included:
- The Battle of the Somme, where Germany was attacked by France and Britain.
- The Battle of Verdun, where the French stopped the German advance.
Phase 3: The Turning Point (1917–1918)
1917 was a crucial year because Russia left the war due to internal revolts, causing the Eastern Front to disappear. Simultaneously, the USA joined the war, making it a truly global conflict. In 1918, many countries surrendered, and the Armistice was signed on November 11, 1918, marking the end of WWI.
Total War and Societal Change
Total War is defined as the full mobilization of a country’s economy, industries, and people for the war effort. Women took on a new role in society, beginning to work in munitions factories, hospitals, and transport. By the time the war ended, women represented 35% of industrial labor in Germany and Britain. However, they did not have the same rights as men, which resulted in the appearance of the Suffragette Movement, calling for female suffrage (the right to vote).
The Russian Revolution (1905–1921)
Precursors to Revolution: Marxism and Political Parties
In opposition to Tsarism, Marxist ideas spread among industrial workers. In 1898, the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party was founded and led by Lenin. This party split into two factions:
- The Mensheviks (minority)
- The Bolsheviks (majority)
The Bolsheviks were unconvinced by the Tsar’s reforms and favored a revolutionary path. In the early 20th century, the Constitutional Democratic Party also emerged in Russia. In 1905, a revolution broke out demanding the end of autocracy, following Russia’s defeat by Japan that year.
The 1917 Revolutions
The Russian Revolution was divided into two parts:
The February Revolution: Fall of Tsarism
The first part, the February Revolution of 1917, resulted in the fall of Tsarism. There was a large demonstration in Petrograd, followed by a general strike and riots in the barracks. The Tsar abdicated, and a republic was proclaimed. Bourgeois parties like the Kadets and Esers led the provisional government and initiated political and social reforms. However, the Soviets (workers’ councils) demanded bigger changes, and popular discontent grew.
The October Revolution: Bolshevik Seizure of Power
The second phase began on October 25, 1917. By this time, most of the Soviets supported the Bolsheviks. Their leader, Lenin, returned to Russia from exile. He proclaimed a workers’ government that included Trotsky and Stalin. They held elections for a Constituent Assembly, but the Bolsheviks received only 25% of the votes, so Lenin dissolved it. He took several revolutionary measures and withdrew Russia from WWI.
The Russian Civil War (1918–1921)
In 1918, a Civil War erupted in Russia, leading to the formation of the USSR. Those who supported Tsarism (the White Army) took up arms against the Soviets. With help from French, Japanese, British, and American troops, the White Army confronted the Red Army, led by Trotsky and the Bolsheviks. The Civil War lasted for three years and created immense problems for the people. In 1921, the Red Army won the war.
The Aftermath of World War I: The Treaty of Versailles
At the end of WWI, there were 18 million deaths, and the Western Front had totally destroyed most of France. The victorious countries were undecided on what to do with Germany. In 1919, they met in Paris and created the Treaty of Versailles, an agreement between the Allies about Germany and the future of Europe, establishing peace between countries. However, Germany was not included in this treaty and therefore did not agree to its terms.
Key Terms of the Treaty of Versailles
- War Guilt: Germany was accused and assigned the blame for the loss and damage caused by the war.
- Military Restrictions: Germany was forbidden from having submarines or airplanes and was limited to only six battleships.
- Reparations: Germany was required to pay 6.6 billion pounds in installments.
- Territorial Loss: Germany lost lands such as Alsace and Lorraine.
- The League of Nations: This organization was set up to promote peace and cooperation between countries. Although proposed by the USA, the US Senate ultimately rejected the treaty, meaning the USA did not join the League.
- Extra Points: Germany and Austria were forbidden from uniting.
The Germans felt the treaty was unfairly imposed and humiliating. This led to the widespread belief in the “Stab in the Back” theory, where Germans believed they had not truly lost the war. Adolf Hitler later used this theory extensively in his speeches to gain political support.