The Road to War and Government Reform in Spain (1931-1933)
The Road to War (1937-1939)
Hitler’s Expansionist Policies
In late 1937, Hitler initiated actions that led to the incorporation of Austria and the Sudetenland region of Czechoslovakia into the German Reich. In March 1938, the German army entered Austria, and Hitler proclaimed the Anschluss, or union, of Austria with Germany. This violation of the Treaty of Versailles drew only mild international protest.
Following the Anschluss, German aggression turned towards Czechoslovakia over the issue of the Sudeten Germans. Nazi propaganda portrayed this minority group as persecuted by Czech authorities. Hitler demanded the incorporation of the Sudetenland into Germany, a claim opposed by Czechoslovakia with French support. War seemed imminent.
The Munich Agreement and its Aftermath
At Mussolini’s urging, the Munich Conference convened in September 1938, with representatives from Germany, Italy, France, and the United Kingdom. The resulting Munich Agreement was a complete triumph for Hitler, as the signatories accepted the incorporation of the Sudetenland into the Reich. War was averted, but at the cost of further Nazi gains.
Hitler’s true intentions soon became clear. The German army invaded Czechoslovakia, and Bohemia and Moravia became a German protectorate, while Slovakia gained nominal independence as a German satellite. Hitler demonstrated that the creation of a Greater Germany did not satisfy his expansionist aims; the annexation of non-German populations marked the beginning of his pursuit of Lebensraum (living space).
The Path to War
The destruction of Czechoslovakia shattered the appeasement policy of the democracies. France and the UK realized that only force could stop further Nazi violations. Both powers guaranteed Poland’s integrity, which was under attack from an aggressive German press demanding the return of Danzig. An alliance with the USSR could have deterred the Nazis, but the British and French leaders, deeply anti-communist, showed little enthusiasm for such an agreement.
German diplomacy moved swiftly. In May 1939, Germany and Italy signed the “Pact of Steel,” a defensive and offensive alliance. The biggest surprise, however, came on August 23, with the signing of the Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact. Stalin, suspecting that the democracies were trying to direct German expansion towards the USSR, readily accepted Hitler’s offer. This was a catastrophe for France and the UK, leaving Poland vulnerable.
On September 1, 1939, the German army invaded Poland. This time, France and the UK honored their commitments and declared war on Germany on September 3. World War II had begun.
Government Reform in Spain (1931-1933)
The Second Republic and its Reforms
After the proclamation of the Second Republic, a provisional government comprising many intellectuals was formed. Its objective was to modernize Spain and establish democracy. Elections held in June 1931 resulted in a victory for republicans and socialists, leading to the drafting of a new constitution.
The 1931 Constitution defined Spain as a republic of workers. A president, elected for six years, headed the Republic. The Cortes (parliament), elected by universal suffrage (including women), consisted of a single chamber. The constitution also established the separation of church and state. Niceto Alcalá-Zamora became the first President, and Manuel Azaña headed the leftist government.
Key reforms during this period included:
- Catalan Autonomy: Catalonia was granted self-governing institutions within Spain through an Autonomy Statute in 1932. The Catalan government, the Generalitat, was controlled by the nationalists of Esquerra Republicana, led by Francesc Macià and Lluís Companys.
- Military Reform: The Spanish Army had an excessive number of officers. An oath of allegiance to the Republic was established for the military, with the option of retirement for those who refused. This reduced the number of commanders. The Zaragoza Military Academy was closed, a move that offended its director, General Franco.
- Religious Reform: The Society of Jesus was dissolved. Religious orders were forbidden from teaching, and state financial contributions to the Church were withdrawn. This reflected the government’s aim to promote secularism in education.
- Land Reform: The Spanish countryside faced several problems, including small, unproductive landholdings in the north and large estates (latifundios) in the south, worked by landless laborers. A land reform was enacted to expropriate large estates and redistribute land to farmers, aiming to end the system of caciquismo (local political bosses).
- Educational Reform: Significant steps were taken in education, including promoting secular, free education, establishing new schools and universities, improving teachers’ salaries, developing teacher training centers, and bringing culture to rural areas through the “pedagogical missions.”
These reforms, while ambitious, created many enemies for the Republic (monarchists, some military, small business owners, the Church, landowners) whose interests were threatened. Divisions within the government and events like the Casas Viejas incident weakened the government, leading to its defeat in the 1933 elections.