The Rise of Totalitarian Regimes: Fascism and Nazism
Fascism and Totalitarianism in Italy
In 1922, Benito Mussolini became the head of Italy. However, the government was a liberal state, and the Fascist Party initially held no power. Most of the government had allied with those who opposed the Fascists, especially after the assassination of Fascist members.
In 1923, the assassination of Giacomo Matteotti, a socialist leader, marked a critical moment. Despite many separate government parties, the King came out in defense of Mussolini, which initiated the downfall of democracy.
The new Fascist government began appointing chiefs, prime ministers, and secretaries of state, governing by decree. Citizens could no longer choose their squad leaders, and these squads became a military body. In short, Italy became a totalitarian state. The support of the Church and the army was pleasantly rewarded.
Economy Under Fascism
The state intervened heavily in the economy. As a nationalist state, Italy aimed for self-sufficiency, a policy known as economic autarky. This policy led to problems:
- Production of low-quality products.
- Low-wage workers were unable to acquire these products, hindering overall development.
- Other industries could not flourish, as only the fascist military industry was favored.
Peasants faced reduced revenues and were forced to migrate overseas. The Italian economy lagged behind Europe, and the living standard of Italians remained below the European average.
Fascist Control of Society
Fascism aimed to control society comprehensively. It focused heavily on children and youth, who were grouped into fascist organizations. Children aged 4-14 were enrolled in groups like the “Children of the Wolf” and “Little Italians.” Older youth were encouraged to participate by wearing Fascist black shirts. Teachers were also required to swear allegiance to Fascism.
The Rise of Nazism in Germany
In 1918, Germany was defeated, the Kaiser abdicated, and Germany became a republic known as the Weimar Republic. The victorious powers imposed very harsh sanctions.
In 1919, radical left-wing groups, known as the Spartacists, attempted to imitate the Soviet Union but were repressed. In 1923, right-wing groups attempted to overthrow the republic, including a mini-coup in Munich led by Adolf Hitler. He was sentenced to only 5 years and 6 months in jail, where he wrote Mein Kampf, outlining his ideology.
The economic situation was regrettable; the need to pay reparations depreciated the currency. Germany recovered, but in 1929, it fell into a severe crisis, and those who had returned to Germany were most affected by the recession.
Origins of the Nazi Party
In 1919, Anton Drexler founded the German National Socialist Workers’ Party in Munich. In 1921, one of the party members, Adolf Hitler, became its undisputed leader. Hitler, who had fought in World War I and been affected by gas, possessed great charisma and organizational capacity.
He published a newspaper and created a paramilitary group, the SA (Sturmabteilung), tasked with protecting leaders, imposing fear, and dressed in brown shirts with swastika armbands and military boots.
In 1923, the party held its first congress. Hitler’s speeches highlighted his aims: confronting the Republic, marching against Jews, and rejecting the Treaty of Versailles. That same year, there was a coup attempt: the Beer Hall Putsch in Munich.
Thereafter, Hitler became more cautious and focused on gaining power through legal means, though intimidation tactics continued. For years, Hitler and his party remained a minority in parliament.
Nazi Ascent to Power
In 1929, the Nazis took advantage of the Great Depression and became radicalized. In 1932, they won significant electoral support but had to agree to a coalition. With the support of Catholic votes, Hitler was appointed Chancellor. He then followed the same path as Mussolini’s government, exploiting the economic situation to dismantle democracy.
Key Factors in Nazi Ascent:
- The dire economic situation.
- The appealing promises of the Nazi Party.
- Rampant anti-Semitism.