The Rise of Totalitarian Regimes and Spain’s Early 20th Century Crisis

Posted on Nov 20, 2025 in History

Causes of the Rise of Totalitarianism

The rise of totalitarianism is explained by the critical situation experienced across the continent, where the liberal system was deemed guilty of the prevailing instability. Key factors included:

  • The difficult recovery following a terrible war (WWI).
  • The concern about a workers’ revolution similar to the one that had triumphed in Russia (Bolshevism).
  • The widespread fear of the economic crisis (Great Depression context).

Characteristics of Fascist Totalitarianism

Fascist totalitarianism, primarily in Italy and Germany, gained support across all social classes, creating a true mass movement. It implemented a centralized totalitarian state, fundamentally opposed to liberal democracy, socialism, communism, and the labor movement. Strategies focused on terrorizing and manipulating the masses. Methods of operation included:

  • Worship of a charismatic leader.
  • Establishment of a rigid social hierarchy.
  • Exaltation of militarism.
  • Cultivation of the desire for revenge (e.g., against WWI treaties).
  • Promotion of fervent nationalism and racism.

Italian Fascism under Benito Mussolini

Benito Mussolini established a totalitarian political system known as Fascism, characterized by:

  • Domestic Politics: Absolute power was concentrated in Mussolini (Il Duce); political opposition was eliminated. The Fascist Grand Council substituted the parliament.
  • Foreign Policy: Ultranationalist ideology led to aggressive actions and expansionism against other nations.
  • Economy: An autocratic and interventionist system was imposed.
  • Society: Corporatism was implemented, and the promotion of independent workers’ rights was terminated.

Nazi Totalitarianism under Adolf Hitler

Adolf Hitler, supported by right-wing parties, won elections and established the Third German Reich. Hitler successfully combined the desire for revenge against the Treaty of Versailles with measures for economic recovery, all imbued with virulent anti-Semitism and fiery Pan-Germanism. The regime was characterized by:

  • Domestic Politics: Hitler gained absolute control of the Nazi Party and various paramilitary forces (like the SA and SS).
  • Foreign Policy: Focused on withdrawal from the Treaty of Versailles and aggressive territorial claims.
  • Economy: An autarky policy (economic self-sufficiency) was applied, heavily investing in public works and rearmament.
  • Society: A pronatalist policy was promoted to increase the reserve of soldiers. His troops were multiplied significantly, contributing to Germany’s emergence from the economic crisis.

Spain: The Reign of Alfonso XIII and the Restoration Crisis

Alfonso XIII inherited the political regime of the Restoration, characterized by the turnismo (alternation) of the Liberal and Conservative parties, maintained through rigged elections. This system faced severe internal problems:

Challenges to the Restoration System

  • The resurgence of regionalism, especially Catalan nationalism, channeled through groups like the Catalan League.
  • A highly sensitive Army following previous military failures.
  • The ongoing War in Morocco.
  • The rapid development of the labor movement and leftist opposition.
  • The threat of anarchist terrorism.

Spain remained neutral during the First World War, but the period culminated in a major crisis that exposed the fragility of the Restoration system. Its main manifestations included:

  • The protest of the Army (Juntas de Defensa).
  • The meeting of a Parliamentary Assembly (challenging the government).
  • A revolutionary general strike (1917).

The War in Morocco and the Annual Disaster

  • In 1921, the Disaster of Annual occurred, culminating in a devastating defeat for the Spanish Army in Morocco, resulting in the deaths of more than nine thousand soldiers.
  • In 1923, a parliamentary inquiry was conducted to establish responsibilities for the disaster, contributing to political instability.

Economic Structure

The Spanish economy during this period was characterized by:

  • The prevalence of a largely unmodernized agricultural sector.
  • Industrialization concentrated primarily in Catalonia, the Basque Country, and Madrid.
  • Improvements in infrastructure, including road networks and railways.
  • The development of major banking institutions, notably in Bilbao and Santander.
  • State protectionism shielding Spanish production from foreign competition.
  • A limited Spanish presence in international trade.

During the subsequent dictatorship, Primo de Rivera created major state monopolies, such as CAMPSA (petroleum) and the National Telephone Company of Spain.

Social Dynamics

The Spanish population grew significantly, from 18 million in 1900 to 25 million in 1936. Social structure was marked by stark contrasts:

  • More than half of the population consisted of rural laborers (peasants).
  • Above this group remained a powerful oligarchy of large landowners.
  • In prosperous cities, a growing middle class of professionals and merchants emerged.
  • Industrial development increased the number of urban workers.

Society showed vast differences between a minority that enjoyed great comfort and a large majority of employees and laborers with low economic status.