The Rise of the USSR: From Bolsheviks to Stalin
The Third International
Revolutionary attempts arose in some European locations. Bolsheviks believed the international struggle between workers and the bourgeoisie was paramount. With this approach, they designed a world revolutionary party to support insurgencies worldwide, creating a new Socialist International. The Second International dissolved due to divisions among socialists during World War I. The Bolsheviks aimed to break with social democracy and form new communist parties, like the one ruling Russia. To this end, the Third International, or Communist International (Comintern), was founded in Moscow in March 1919. Only communist groups could join the Third International. They had to be revolutionary (non-reformist) parties, with iron discipline and trained elites. If necessary, they should reject old parties and expel borderline or moderate militants. The requirements to join the Comintern were reflected in the Twenty Conditions. Although many socialist parties sympathized with the Bolshevik Revolution and the new International, the conditions for membership caused a wave of splits in socialist political groups. This led to new communist parties, such as the Communist Party of Spain, established in 1921. Except for the German party, European communist parties remained small compared to socialist parties until World War II. However, influential communist parties emerged outside Europe, such as in Indonesia and China. The creation of the Third International divided the Marxist labor movement and did not prevent the international isolation of the Bolshevik regime caused by the failure of world revolution.
The Construction of the USSR (1921-1939)
From 1921, the Communist Party launched the New Economic Policy (NEP), introducing capitalist elements in agriculture and industries:
- Termination of land confiscations: Farmers could freely manage their land and market their products.
- Privatization of small industries: Small industries returned to private ownership, increasing production and improving city supplies.
The NEP led to debates within the Russian Communist Party. An economic debate arose between proponents of the NEP (Lenin) and those favoring accelerated collectivization (Trotsky and Stalin), who prioritized industry. A political debate also emerged regarding the democratization of state structures. The USSR was born in 1922.
The Rise of Stalin
Lenin led the USSR until his death in 1924. Trotsky, a potential successor given his prestige and prominence in the revolution, lost support due to his opposition to the NEP and his “socialism in one country” formula. Stalin, general secretary from 1922, sidelined and purged Trotsky by 1927.
Stalin’s Dictatorship
From 1929, the USSR’s political system evolved into a personal dictatorship under Stalin, supported by the Communist Party’s power:
- Cult of personality: Propaganda praised Stalin, reminiscent of the deification of gods.
- Mass party: The party became a mass party of Russian nationalism, different from Lenin’s revolutionary party.
- Marxism-Leninism: The ideology became a religious doctrine; dissent was considered heresy, punishable by arrest and execution.
- Socialism in One Country: Stalin argued that socialism could be built only in the USSR and did not need to be exported.
- Regime of Terror: To maintain this policy, purges were carried out within the party and throughout the country.
Stalin’s Economic Policies
The NEP was replaced by authoritarian, centralized economic planning. The state and the party controlled all economic activity, deciding what, how, and how much to produce. The goal was rapid industrialization at any cost:
- Five Year Plans: Targets were set for five-year periods.
- Collectivization of agriculture: Private land ownership was replaced by kolkhoz (collective farms). Land was controlled by the state. Kulaks (wealthy peasants) who resisted were repressed, deported, or even eliminated.
- Focus on heavy industry: Industries producing goods like heavy machinery, steel, ships, and railroads were developed. Workers were pressured to produce more in less time.