The Rise of the Spanish Monarchy: Catholic Monarchs and a Modern State
1. The Catholic Monarchs and the Unification of Spain
The marriage of Isabella of Castile and Ferdinand of Aragon in 1469 marked the beginning of a new era in Spanish history. Their reign saw the creation of a unified Spanish monarchy and the establishment of a powerful, centralized state.
Interior Policy
Castile was the larger and more powerful of the two kingdoms. Aragon, while possessing significant territories, had a more limited monarchy due to the strong regional institutions within its realm. The dominance of Castile led to the spread of Castilian customs, language, and laws throughout the newly unified territories.
The primary objective of the Catholic Monarchs’ interior policy was to strengthen the power of the state. They established new institutions, such as the Holy Brotherhood (1476), which acted as a police force and maintained order in Castile. The Catholic Monarchs also sought to gain control over the Church. They revitalized the practice of royal patronage, asserting their right to appoint bishops. They also attempted to improve aspects of ecclesiastical life by correcting deviations from Church doctrine and improving the training of clergy. These policies achieved some success with the help of prominent clerics like Cardinal Cisneros.
Another key aspect of their interior policy was the pursuit of religious uniformity. The monarchs aimed to ensure that all their subjects practiced the same religion. To this end, they established the Supreme Council of the Inquisition (1478). The Spanish Inquisition was a powerful tool used to enforce religious orthodoxy and strengthen royal authority. Religious uniformity was further solidified with the expulsion of the Jews in 1492, affecting approximately 70,000 people. While some Jews converted to Christianity to remain in Spain, they faced persecution and surveillance by the Inquisition. The persecution of the Mudéjars (Muslims) began soon after, with forced baptisms following the First Rebellion of the Alpujarras in 1499. They were later expelled from Castile (1502) and Aragon (1526). The Catholic Monarchs achieved their objective of a unified state, with religion playing a crucial role in this process.
2. Expansion in the Mediterranean and the Atlantic
Mediterranean: The main objective in the Mediterranean was to halt French attempts to occupy the Kingdom of Naples, which was incorporated into the Crown of Aragon in 1503. Another focus was North Africa, where they conquered Melilla (1497), Oran, and Tripoli (c. 1510). These conquests aimed to suppress Barbary pirates and halt the Ottoman advance in the western Mediterranean.
Atlantic: In the Atlantic, the Catholic Monarchs sought to complete the conquest of the Canary Islands. Their Atlantic policy also led to the discovery of America in 1492 and the incorporation of these lands into the Crown of Castile.
3. Diplomacy and the Confrontation with France
The interests of Spain and France clashed in Navarre, Roussillon, Cerdanya, and Italy. The Spanish crown sought allies against France, notably England, the Papacy, and the Holy Roman Empire.
4. Formation of a Modern State
The Catholic Monarchs maintained the existing laws and institutions of each kingdom but sought to strengthen organizations that enhanced royal power. In Castile, they could implement their authoritarian and centralizing policies more effectively than in Aragon, where regional assemblies and traditional institutions limited royal authority.
Their institutional policy aimed to create a strong monarchy capable of challenging the nobility, the Church, and the cities. They sought to curtail the political privileges of these groups by reforming existing institutions, particularly in Castile:
- Royal Council of Castile (1480): Reorganized into the main governing body. Though nobles and clergy were members, the monarchs ensured the inclusion of legally trained officials, reducing aristocratic influence. Its responsibilities were extensive, ranging from acting as a high court to advising the king on domestic and foreign affairs.
- New Positions: Royal secretaries, trained legal professionals who enjoyed the monarchs’ trust, acted as intermediaries between the councils and the monarchs. Viceroys represented the sovereign in territories where the monarchs were not present.
- Cortes of Castile: Their political importance declined as councils assumed some of their functions. Meetings became less frequent, primarily held to swear allegiance to the heir or approve taxes.
- Castilian City Administration: The office of corregidor was revitalized. These royal appointees governed cities with administrative and military powers, limiting municipal autonomy and the influence of local elites.
- Judicial System: Reorganized to establish a hierarchy of courts: local magistrates, regional courts (audiencias), and the Royal Council of Castile at the apex.
Reforms in the Crown of Aragon were less extensive. They included the introduction of viceroys and a system of balloting for municipal offices. The establishment of the Inquisition strengthened royal power, as it was under the monarchs’ control and possessed broad authority.