The Rise of Socialism and Unionism in the Early 20th Century
The Rise of Unionism
The growth of capitalism led to a significant increase in the industrial proletariat. This, coupled with the spread of socialism, fostered the development of a new, massive unionism. In early 20th century England, union membership exceeded four million, and Germany had over two million unionized workers. Workers began demanding state intervention to mediate conflicts, curb employer abuses, and ensure labor legislation.
These demands resulted in the first labor laws, particularly those addressing child and female labor. In 1819, the British government mandated a minimum working age of nine, while France set it at eight in 1841, later raising it to ten in 1874. By the late 19th century, night work for women was banned, and mandatory postpartum rest was established. Germany pioneered compulsory worker insurance, covering illness, accidents, disability, and old age. France and England followed with similar legislation in the early 20th century. In 1908, England introduced unemployment compensation. Most industrialized nations adopted a ten-hour workday in workshops and eight hours in mines, though the eight-hour day wasn’t universally achieved until after World War I.
Socialist Parties and Trade Unions
Reflecting the experience of the First International, worker political parties began to emerge. The German Social Democratic Party (SPD), founded in 1875 and Marxist-inspired, outlined a two-tiered program in 1891. Their long-term goal was to achieve political power through non-violent socialist revolution. Their short-term goals, which became central to 20th-century European social democracy, involved political and parliamentary action to achieve democratic and social reforms. These included universal suffrage for women, proportional representation, equal rights, direct taxation, and public health and education. They also sought improved working-class conditions: reduced working hours, better wages, child labor prohibition, and social insurance.
In 1912, the SPD became the largest party in the German Parliament. This growth spurred the creation of national unions with professional leadership, such as the General Union of German Trade Unions. Similar organizations emerged elsewhere, like Spain’s General Union of Workers (UGT, 1888). In England, the process began with trade unions, consolidating nationally into the Trades Union Congress, boasting three million members by the late 19th century. Their political aspirations were initially channeled through the Liberal Party. Around 1900, some unionists saw the need for their own political organization, leading to the formation of the Labour Party (1905), which gained significant parliamentary representation by 1906 and adopted a socialist orientation by 1918.
Crises and Divisions within the Socialist Movement
Existing disagreements within the socialist movement intensified, centering on whether the movement should be revolutionary or reformist, as articulated by Rosa Luxemburg. World War I exacerbated these divisions, creating three main factions within socialist parties: patriots, who supported the war on national defense grounds; moderate pacifists, who advocated neutrality; and revolutionaries, like Luxemburg, Lenin, and Antonio Gramsci, who aimed to transform the war into a proletarian revolution.
The Bolsheviks, led by Lenin, put revolutionary theses into practice, seizing power in Russia in 1917. This event fractured the socialist movement. The Russian Revolution became a new point of reference, forcing socialist factions to define their positions. The split led to the formation of communist parties and the Soviet decision to establish the Comintern, impacting all socialist groups. The Socialist International, existing until 1914, was effectively dissolved, requiring reconstitution on new terms.
The Paths of Socialism
From 1890 onwards, an increasingly intense debate developed within the socialist movement, originating within the German Social Democratic Party. The party’s growth and expansion into the middle classes favored parliamentary practice over revolutionary action. This fueled revisionism of Marx’s tenets, championed by Eduard Bernstein. Bernstein questioned Marx’s analysis of capitalism, arguing that wealth was spreading rather than concentrating, and some workers’ living conditions had improved. He believed that working-class political participation had led to democratizing social reforms, and advocated for gradual parliamentary progress towards socialism.
Bernstein’s position remained a minority view. The majority, represented by Karl Kautsky, maintained revolutionary rhetoric but favored reformist practices. Others, like Rosa Luxemburg, argued that socialism could only be achieved through proletarian revolution. Vladimir Lenin, the most prominent figure in this leftist trend, led the Bolshevik split in 1903.
French socialism was divided. Jules Guesde represented revolutionary orthodoxy, opposing any alliance with the bourgeoisie. Jean Jaurès advocated a synthesis of democracy and socialism, favoring collaboration with progressive forces and even government participation. These leaders, representing two socialist parties, united in 1905 to form the French Section of the Workers’ International (SFIO).
In Italy and Spain, anarchism hindered the growth of socialism. Spain’s Socialist Party (PSOE), founded in 1879, maintained a radical class position, opposing collaboration with the bourgeoisie and aligning closely with the UGT. In Italy, anarchists and socialists coexisted, eventually forming the Socialist Party in 1892. Austrian socialism adhered to Marxist orthodoxy.
The Practice of Anarchism
Anarchism was primarily rooted in Spain, Italy, and France. The 1881 London Congress endorsed personal violence to spread anarchist ideas and incite revolution. “Propaganda of the deed” involved attacks on state, church, and bourgeois representatives, whom they blamed for workers’ misery. Repression, isolation, and the rise of a powerful bourgeoisie contributed to some terrorist acts. Anarcho-communism, the most radical anarchist branch, represented by Peter Kropotkin and Enrico Malatesta, opposed trade unions and advocated for a classless society based on individual behavior.
Opposition to terrorist practices and individualism, and a focus on collective action, led to anarcho-syndicalism, a unionist current aiming for a classless society through direct confrontation with owners. In France, this current aligned with socialist trade unionism, culminating in the Charter of Amiens (1906), which defined revolutionary syndicalism. Independent from political parties, it emphasized direct worker action, general strikes as a revolutionary tool, and confrontation with employers. France’s General Confederation of Labour (CGT) and Spain’s National Confederation of Labour (CNT, 1910) exemplified this approach.