The Rise of Primo de Rivera’s Dictatorship in Spain
Discontent and Crisis (1917-1923)
In 1917, widespread discontent gripped Spain. Rising prices and food shortages contrasted sharply with the fortunes amassed by a select few. German submarines targeted Spanish merchant ships supplying the Allies, further exacerbating the situation. The government’s response to criticism was to suspend the Cortes (parliament), fueling further unrest.
Three key groups united in their aim to overthrow the government: the military, parliamentarians, and workers. A clash erupted in June between the government and the army, fueled by the perceived mistreatment of Spanish troops in Morocco. The military issued an ultimatum, demanding improvements. While the government initially yielded, a second, more forceful manifesto called for the “restoration of political life.”
In July, a parliamentary crisis unfolded, with demands for the reopening of the Cortes. A National Assembly of Parliamentarians convened, ultimately calling for a change in government and the establishment of a Constituent Cortes.
The General Strike of August 1917
The defining event of this turbulent period was the general strike in August. Unions, including the UGT and CNT, declared their intention to strike against the government. The strike, initially sparked by railway workers in Valencia, gained momentum, with widespread participation from mining and industrial sectors. While agricultural areas saw less involvement, the government responded with force, deploying troops and clashing with pickets. The strike officially ended after a few days, though it persisted for two weeks in Asturias.
The strike’s impact was significant. With hundreds dead and thousands arrested, unions demonstrated their power, but also faced harsh repression. The political crisis deepened, leading to the resignation of the Prime Minister, Eduardo Dato, in October.
From 1918 to 1923, Spain witnessed a revolving door of governments, with eleven different administrations failing to address the worsening economic and social conditions. Social unrest escalated, marked by an increase in strikes. The 1918 flu pandemic further devastated the country, leaving a lasting impact on the population.
Escalating Violence and the Moroccan War
In Barcelona, the confrontation between workers and employers intensified. The emergence of the Free Trade Union, coupled with employer-backed gunmen targeting labor leaders, fueled a wave of violence. Anarchist groups responded with “direct action,” leading to a cycle of retaliatory attacks. The assassination of Prime Minister Eduardo Dato in 1921 highlighted the severity of the situation.
Meanwhile, the ongoing war in Morocco further strained the regime. The “Disaster of Annual” in 1921, a military defeat that resulted in heavy Spanish casualties, sparked outrage and calls for accountability. The subsequent investigation, hampered by powerful business interests, fueled criticism from the PSOE and Republicans.
The Coup of 1923
By the summer of 1923, rumors of a coup d’état circulated widely. Several factors contributed to the eventual overthrow of the constitutional government:
- The aftermath of the Annual Disaster and the military’s desire for retribution.
- Dissatisfaction with the government’s handling of social unrest and labor movements.
- The rise of nationalism in Catalonia and the Basque Country, viewed with suspicion by the conservative right.
- The fragmentation of the Liberal and Conservative parties, and the growing influence of socialists and Republicans.
- The desire for an authoritarian government to quell social unrest and maintain order.
On September 12, 1923, Miguel Primo de Rivera, Captain General of Catalonia, launched his coup. With the tacit support of King Alfonso XIII, Primo de Rivera swiftly seized power, establishing an iron-fisted dictatorship. He declared martial law, dissolved parliament, and suspended constitutional guarantees, effectively ending the constitutional regime.
The Dictatorship Takes Hold
Initially, Primo de Rivera enjoyed a degree of popular support. However, his subsequent actions, including the suppression of Catalan culture and the implementation of authoritarian policies, solidified his dictatorial rule. While he introduced some reforms, such as the Municipal Statute of 1924, these often failed to deliver meaningful change. Primo de Rivera’s dictatorship marked a significant turning point in Spanish history, setting the stage for further political turmoil in the years to come.