The Rise of Nationalism and Imperialism in 19th Century Europe
1. The Rise of Nationalism in Europe
1.1 France
In 1851, Louis Bonaparte staged a coup, declared himself Emperor Napoleon III, and established the Second French Empire. His reign was marked by a mix of order and modernization. Napoleon III intervened in several international crises:
- Participated in the Crimean War.
- Intervened in Italy, supporting Piedmont and the unification of Italy.
- Attempted to establish a French satellite empire in Mexico.
- Supported Prussia against Austria, but was defeated in the Franco-Prussian War in 1870, leading to the fall of his empire.
1.2 German Unification
After the failed revolutions of 1848, German nationalism split into two camps:
- Supporters of a Greater Germany, centered around Austria.
- Those who preferred a smaller Germany led by Prussia.
Prussian Chancellor Otto von Bismarck achieved unification through a series of wars:
- The Second Schleswig War against Denmark.
- The Austro-Prussian War, demonstrating Prussian military superiority and unifying northern Germany.
- The Franco-Prussian War, leading to the surrender of Napoleon III and the proclamation of the Prussian King as Emperor of a unified Germany.
1.3 Italian Unification
Italian unification was complex due to Austrian occupation and the presence of the Papal States. The process involved several stages:
- War with Austria, with French support, resulting in the acquisition of Lombardy.
- Nationalist uprisings in Parma, Modena, Tuscany, and the Papal States.
- Giuseppe Garibaldi and his volunteers conquered the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies.
- As Prussia’s ally in the war against Austria, Italy gained Venetia.
- In 1870, Italian troops entered Rome, completing unification but creating tension with the Papacy.
Italy faced several challenges:
- Economic imbalance between the industrial north and the agricultural south.
- The Roman Question, which complicated political life.
- Difficulties in establishing a colonial empire in Africa.
2. The Great European Powers
2.1 The Second German Reich
Germany emerged as a leading continental power. Bismarck’s diplomacy aimed to isolate France through a system of alliances. He also orchestrated the Triple Alliance with Austria-Hungary and Italy, while securing Russian neutrality. Berlin became a center of world diplomacy.
In 1890, Kaiser Wilhelm II dismissed Bismarck and embarked on rapid industrialization and social reforms.
2.2 The French Third Republic
After the fall of the Second Empire, the Third Republic was proclaimed in Paris. In foreign policy, Bismarck’s diplomacy led to France’s isolation. Domestically, the republic was divided between republicans and monarchists. The Dreyfus Affair, a scandal involving espionage and military corruption, further divided French society.
2.3 The Austro-Hungarian Empire
The Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 created a dual monarchy, resolving internal crisis after Austria’s defeat by Prussia and the loss of Italian territories. However, the empire faced threats from nationalist movements, particularly from Slavic groups.
2.4 The Russian Empire
The Russian Empire was a vast territory with a large population but lagged behind in social, political, and economic development. Serfdom was not abolished until 1861. Rapid industrialization led to social tensions. The construction of the Trans-Siberian Railway was a significant modernization project.
3. Imperialism
3.1 The New Imperialism
European powers built vast colonial empires overseas. This new phase of colonial expansion began around 1830 and peaked around 1870, driven by economic and cultural factors.
3.2 Economic Reasons
The Industrial Revolution provided Europeans with the means to consolidate their power. Colonies supplied raw materials and cheap labor, while also serving as markets for European goods and investment opportunities.
3.3 Demographic Factors
Europe’s population boomed, leading to emigration and pressure for colonial expansion. European immigration drove the conquest and colonization of territories inhabited by indigenous peoples.
3.4 Political Reasons
Colonies provided strategic advantages and prestige. Competition for colonies increased international tensions.
3.5 Ideological Justification
Racism provided an intellectual alibi for imperialism, with Europeans believing in the superiority of the white race and their right to dominate others.
4. Colonial Empires
4.1 European Colonial Powers
All European powers sought colonial empires:
- The British Empire was the largest and richest, encompassing a quarter of the Earth’s surface and population. India was its most prized possession.
- The Russian Empire stretched across Eurasia, seeking access to the Indian Ocean and the Sea of Japan.
- The French empire included territories in Africa, Indochina, and various islands.
- Germany and Italy acquired colonies in Africa and the Pacific.
- Spain held onto small territories in Africa after losing its American and Pacific possessions.
- The Congo Free State was a private domain of the Belgian king before becoming a Belgian colony.
Independent territories in Asia and Africa included former empires like China, Persia, and Turkey, as well as buffer states between expanding powers.
4.2 The United States: From Colony to Empire
The United States emerged as a global economic power in the late 19th century. Its history was marked by:
- Rivalry between the agricultural South and the industrial North.
- Westward expansion, fueled by the discovery of gold in California and the acquisition of territories from Mexico.
The United States became an imperialist power, intervening in Latin America, seizing Puerto Rico and the Philippines, and constructing the Panama Canal.
4.3 Japan: A Unique Case
Japan underwent the Meiji Restoration, abandoning feudalism and rapidly industrializing. It became an imperialist power, defeating China and Russia and establishing a colonial empire in Asia.