The Rise of Liberalism: European Political Transformation (17th–19th C)

Posted on Nov 10, 2025 in History

English Parliamentarism: Origins and Evolution

English Parliamentarism was the most progressive system of the 16th century, important because of its influence on enlightened political ideas. Its roots can be traced back to the Anglo-Saxon ‘Witenagamot’ and the advisory council of the Norman Kings, the ‘Curia Regis’. That Curia evolved to become the English Parliament, where the dominant groups, the Aristocracy and Clergy, intervened beside the King in the government of the nation. The first key point in this evolution was the passage of the Magna Carta Libertatum in 1215 by John of England. It seriously limited the power of the English kings, avoiding the exercise of absolute rule. The balance of power between the King and the Parliament changed throughout the next centuries until it came to a second breaking point in the 17th century with the English Civil War (1642–1651), which confronted Parliamentarians and Royalists.

The English Civil War and Oliver Cromwell

Throughout the 17th century, an important English bourgeoisie and a far more dynamic aristocracy than anywhere on the continent had consolidated thanks to trade. The attempts to establish the absolute power of the King and thus limit the influence of the Parliament led to the Civil War. The conflict ended with the execution of King Charles I and the establishment of a parliamentary republic: The Commonwealth (1649–1651), and a few years later, a military dictatorship under the Lord Protector Oliver Cromwell (1653–1659).

The Restoration of the Monarchy (1660)

In 1660, Parliament offered to restore the monarchy if Charles would agree to concessions for religious toleration and a general amnesty. Charles was not as hard as his father and agreed to the proposals. He returned to London on a wave of popular support to be crowned Charles II (1660–1685). The Restoration was notable for a relaxation of the Puritan morality of the previous decades. Theatre, sports, and dancing were revived. Political matters were not so good internationally.

Consolidation of Parliamentarism

William of Orange accepted the Bill of Rights in 1689; this law was based on national sovereignty. The House of Lords was integrated by members of the aristocracy chosen by the King, and their seats were occupied for life and could even be inherited. The House of Commons was chosen by citizens. The Parliament’s missions were to pass bills, taxes, and state budgets. The King’s mission was to govern according to the laws passed by Parliament. After the unification of England and Scotland in 1707, we refer to Britain, not England. The British Union Flag assembles the three national flags (England, Scotland, Ireland).

The New Dynasty: The Hanovers

In 1714, George became King. The Act stipulated that the British monarchy should be Protestant and Hanoverian. The Hanoverian era continued until 1837. The coming of the Hanoverians to the British throne was not well welcomed. George I did not speak English. The major opposition to the Hanovers were the Jacobites. Two Jacobite rebellions occurred, in 1715 and in 1745. Both were marked by poor military organization, exaggerated hopes of support, and lackluster leadership.

The British Empire and the Triangular Trade

An empire based on commerce, sea power, and naval dominance consolidated British overseas settler societies. Beginning in the 18th century, Britain possessed many colonies across the world. It dominated trade with India, a part of Asia, and China. In the Atlantic Ocean, trade was carried out by private merchant vessels. Profits made from sugar, tea, and coffee trade were the major driving force behind the Triangular Trade. The Triangular Trade consisted of three journeys.

Crisis of the Ancient Régime in the 18th Century

The collapse of the Ancient Régime (AR) followed the decline of medieval feudalism. The AR became the principal economic, social, and political system in Europe. The form of government was an absolute monarchy; society was structured so that a minority had privileges and the majority of the population were rural peasants. The development of manufacturing generated new sources of wealth which benefited the bourgeoisie. The development of bourgeois activities was hindered by economic and social structures. They wanted social and political recognition, but the AR did not permit it.

Agrarian and Manorial Economy

The economy of the AR was mainly rural. More than 80% of the population worked in agriculture. Land was in the hands of the nobility and the Church, so people had to work for them. Manorialism remained in force in the countryside. The lords received manorial rents and taxes paid by the peasants and had the power to order and impart justice. Peasants also paid taxes to the Church. Agriculture used traditional methods and its productivity was low. People practiced subsistence farming, which produced just enough food for the population to live. Exchange was rare and trade limited. Agriculture was the predominant activity, but the bourgeoisie developed artisan and manufacturing activities.

Society Based on Privilege

Society was divided by traditional law into three estates:

  1. The Clergy
  2. The Nobility
  3. Ordinary People (The Third Estate)

The Third Estate included peasants, urban working classes, and the bourgeoisie. The nobility and clergy had privileges and rights; they controlled the army and did not have to pay taxes. The rest of the population had to pay taxes and could not enjoy privileges. This reflected the inequality of society.

Monarchy by Divine Right

The predominant form of government was absolute monarchy by divine right. The King’s authority came from God and power was exercised in the name of God. Louis XIV was the perfect example of an absolute monarch: the King issued laws, appointed judges and ministers, administered justice, commanded the army, and directed foreign policy.

Factors for Change: The Emerging Bourgeoisie

The bourgeoisie aspired to participate in government. They criticized the privileges of nobles and clergy, arguing that social recognition should be based on individual merit, not on the family in which you were born. Peasants opposed the manorial system and the heavy taxes they had to pay. Enlightenment thinkers began to challenge the ideological foundations of the AR and propose a new model for society. They wanted to end the dominance of the privileged classes.

Economic and Population Growth (1650-1800)

Population Growth

Europe’s population grew from 100 million to 200 million between 1650 and 1800. Causes included:

  • Greater agricultural production
  • General economic growth
  • Fewer epidemics, leading to a low death rate and increased birth rate.

Population growth led to an increase in demand for goods and services. The extension of cultivated areas, the introduction of new crops, and the expansion of irrigation increased crop yields.

Development of Agriculture and Manufacturing

Agricultural production increased, and more land was cleared for cultivation. New agricultural techniques and new crops were introduced. This led to an Agricultural Revolution at the end of the 18th century. Two new systems of production were introduced:

  1. The Domestic System: Peasants were provided with the necessary raw materials and tools to make products.
  2. Factories: These were state-run or privately owned and employed many workers to make specific products.

New products were sold in urban markets and through international colonial trade that developed maritime routes.

The Triangular Trade and Colonial Expansion

Colonial trade expanded significantly. Sugar, coffee, tobacco, cotton, and cocoa became commonly used in Europe. Slaves were taken from Africa to America, where they were sold and forced to work in bad conditions. Financial benefits were extremely high and favored the proliferation of merchants, bankers, and commercial companies.

The Independence of the United States

The 13 British colonies organized the first colonial insurrection. They established the first government to be founded on equality and freedom. American colonists were unhappy for not allowing them to send representatives to Parliament and for imposing commercial taxes and monopolies. The British decision caused a rebellion in Boston called the Boston Tea Party (1773). George III sent an army to stop the rebellion. The Declaration of Independence of the 13 colonies was signed on July 4th, 1776. After a war, Britain recognized the independence of the colonies (1783). George Washington became the first president of the US (1789). A new Constitution (1787) was created, which established the separation of powers. The Constitution guaranteed freedom of religion, press, speech, assembly, and the right to trial by jury. Power was transferred from the people to the Senate and the House of Representatives.

The Enlightenment Movement

This movement challenged the authority of the Ancient Régime and proposed a new way of organizing society; the bourgeoisie adopted these ideas.

Key Ideas of Enlightenment Thinkers

Enlightenment thinkers believed reason was the only way to understand the world. Most of them were deists and rejected the superiority of one religion, condemning religious intolerance. They defended freedom of thought. They had an optimistic view of nature, believing humans were born to be happy and that progress was inevitable.

Social Changes

  • Opposed stratified society.
  • No one should inherit privileges from their ancestors.
  • Defended social mobility and personal merit.

Economic Changes

  • Opposed mercantilism, which was based on the accumulation of precious metals.
  • Defended productive work.
  • Opposed state regulations and defended free trade.

Political Changes

  • Montesquieu proposed the separation of powers.
  • Rousseau expressed the need for a social contract between individuals and the rulers. He also defended the idea of popular sovereignty expressed through voting.
  • Voltaire defended fiscal justice.

Spanish Enlightenment thinkers were concerned about how Spanish society and its economy could modernize. Jovellanos criticized the privileges of the AR, condemned the idle nobility, opposed the prejudices of the Church, and justified the need for land reform. The main objectives of Enlightenment thinkers were economic growth, reform of society, improvement of education, and modernization of culture. To spread their new ideas, they created the framework for land distribution and an increase in production, trade, and wealth.

Spreading Enlightenment Ideas

The great scientific revolution began with scientists such as Kepler, Descartes, Pascal, Torricelli, Galileo, and Newton. The Encyclopaedia helped spread all this knowledge. They believed that science and technology helped society to progress and to make a country richer. The hot air balloon caused much public interest. Universities and scientific academies were created all around Europe. Wealthy women contributed to the Enlightenment by organizing meetings for intellectuals. Literacy also improved, and newspapers and books became available to greater numbers of people. Philosophers and scientists collaborated on the Encyclopaedia’s development (edited by Diderot and d’Alembert, 1751–1772).

Enlightened Despotism

European monarchs were influenced by Enlightenment ideas and some tried to introduce reforms. Frederik II of Prussia, Maria Theresa of Austria, Catherine II of Russia, Gustav III of Sweden, and Charles III of Spain promoted the rationalization of administration, education reforms, and modernization of the economy. They developed agriculture and industry, facilitated free trade, and promoted manufacturing. Enlightened Despotism is summarized in the phrase: “All for the people, nothing by the people,” meaning they acted in favor of the people but kept absolute power.

The Bourbon Monarchy in Spain

The Bourbon dynasty in Spain started with the victory of Philip V’s supporters after the death of the last Habsburg king, Charles II (1700). The War of the Spanish Succession (1701–1714) was an internal conflict in Spain. It was caused by a confrontation between two pretenders to the throne. The military outcome was favorable to Philip’s troops after the victory of Almansa (1707). In 1711, Charles inherited the German Empire and lost interest in becoming the King of Spain. The conflict ended with the Treaty of Utrecht (1713), which recognized Philip V as King in exchange for territory in Europe. The war continued in Catalonia and Mallorca. After the Spanish War of Succession, the unification of Aragon and Castile began. New laws were passed to unify both territories. They abolished the privileges and institutions of the Crown of Aragon and imposed the Castilian system. The Bourbons began to centralize power and reform the structure of the state. The Councils were abolished, except those in Castile. The Cortes disappeared. France and Spain signed the Family Compact, which guided Spanish foreign policy during the 18th century. The reigns of Philip V and Ferdinand VI were characterized by the centralization of the state and the implementation of the French absolutist model. Charles III was influenced by enlightened despotism and tried to modernize the economy.

Enlightened Despotism under Charles III

Charles III ruled as an absolutist king but chose some thinkers to be his advisors. The Catholic Church had an enormous influence.

Reforms by Charles III:

  • Regulation of the professions.
  • Free movement of goods and free sale of grain.
  • Free trade with the Americas from all Spanish ports.
  • Liberalizing the manufacturing process.
  • Establishing tariffs to defend against foreign competition.
  • Imposing royal authority over the Church.
  • Creating primary schools and reforming universities.

Rococo Style

Rococo was a reflection of the refined tastes of the aristocracy. It is elegant and ornate, with an emphasis on sensual beauty and visual pleasure. The aristocracy displayed their wealth through their palace decoration. Interiors had lavish ornamentation based on curves and asymmetry.

Rococo Features:

  • Ambience of the privileged.
  • Light colors.
  • Dominance of color over drawing.
  • Development of a new medium called pastel.

Painters: Watteau, Fragonard, Tiepolo, Gainsborough.

Neoclassicism

Neoclassicism was influenced by the discovery of many important archaeological sites from ancient Greece and Rome. It replaced Rococo. Excessive decorations were replaced by Neoclassicism, which involved the return to the simplicity and rationality of classical art. It was more similar to the bourgeois mentality of Europe.

  • Architecture: Inspired by Greco-Roman style and rejected profuse ornamentation. Libraries, pantheons, gates, and museums were constructed.
  • Painters: Used mythological and historical themes to express moral values.
  • Sculptors: Focused on mythological themes but also made funerary monuments and portraits. Their goal was to convey beauty and perfection, and they used marble and bronze mainly.

The Age of Revolutions (1789–1871)

The reforms of the Enlightenment did not solve the problems of the Ancient Régime. From 1780 onwards, a series of liberal revolutions spread across Europe and transformed the continent and its colonies. The new political system, known as liberalism, was based on popular sovereignty (the right to vote) and the people’s right to build their own state. The absolute monarchies disappeared, the bourgeoisie became the dominant social group, and new states were created. The revolutions that began at the end of the 18th century were also called the Bourgeois Revolutions. Other social groups also participated in the revolutions.

The American Revolution

The 13 British colonies claimed independence from Great Britain (GB) and executed a political revolution. The cause of the revolution was the discontent of the colonists who lacked representation in the British Parliament, were dependent on GB for trade, and could not occupy extensive territories located to the west of the colonies reserved for the British. The spread of Enlightenment ideas led people to consider the British government to be despotic. The spark that set off the conflict was the attempt by Britain to levy new taxes. The most significant ones were the Stamp Act (1765)—a tax on commercial and legal documents—and the Tea Act (1773)—which gave the British East India Company a monopoly on the sale of tea in the colonies; taxes were also levied on paper, lead, and glass. Colonists argued that they had not voted for them. The most important protest was the Boston Tea Party (1773)—a group of colonists disguised as Native Americans threw an entire shipment of tea carried by some British ships into the Boston harbor. The harsh repression by the British authorities led to the War of Independence (1775–1783). The rebels formed an army under the command of George Washington. During the war, representatives from the 13 colonies met and passed the Declaration of Independence (July 4, 1776), which recognized the equal rights of all people, the rights to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness, and national sovereignty. Finally, with the support of France and Spain, the colonies defeated the British, and their independence was recognized through the Peace of Paris (1783). The US of America was born. The US Constitution (1787) was the first to be written; it established a new state organized as a federal republic based on national sovereignty and the separation of powers among the Congress, the President, and the Supreme Court. The American Revolution had an enormous impact on the world.

The French Revolution

Precursors to the French Revolution

The revolution was preceded by the spread of new Enlightenment ideals, the development of the bourgeoisie, and the success of the American Revolution. A revolutionary wave began in France (1789) and spread through Europe. Its aim was to end absolutism and the Ancient Régime. Revolutionaries wanted all male citizens to be considered free and equal and to have the right to participate in political life. The Third Estate aspired to profound social reforms. The revolution was a long and complex process that went through different phases.

The Meeting of the Estates-General

France faced a food crisis and a financial crisis caused by debt and inflation. The Estates-General met with Louis XVI to approve new taxes. The Third Estate and the nobility and clergy did not come to an agreement, and the Third Estate left the meeting to create the National Constituent Assembly (NCA). The people of Paris stormed the Bastille, which was used as a prison and was considered a symbol of absolute power. During the Great Fear, nobles’ homes were burnt. Louis XVI was frightened, so he accepted the National Constituent Assembly.

The National Constituent Assembly (1789–1791)

The NCA tried to reach an agreement with the King and the privileged estates. The bourgeoisie aspired to abolish the Ancient Régime. The first decisions of the NCA were to abolish feudalism and approve the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen. Later, they approved the Constitution of 1791.

The Legislative Assembly (1791–1792)

The NCA was dissolved and substituted by the Legislative Assembly, which faced several problems:

  • Opposition by the King and exiled nobles.
  • Opposition by the Church.
  • Opposition by the sans-culottes (independent workers).
  • The war against Austria and Prussia.
  • Clashes between moderate revolutionaries (Girondins) and radical revolutionaries (Jacobins).

The National Convention (1792–1795)

The Legislative Assembly was dissolved and replaced by the National Convention, which was dominated by the Girondins. Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette were convicted of treason and guillotined in January 1793. Monarchies in Europe formed an absolutist coalition against France. The Jacobins seized power (June 1793). A new constitution recognized popular sovereignty. The executive was led by a Committee of Public Safety, which gave power to Robespierre. To stop conspiracies, the Reign of Terror was imposed. Freedoms were suspended, and people opposed to the government were executed. The guillotine was named after Joseph Guillotin, who proposed this form of capital punishment for humanitarian and efficiency reasons. To satisfy the sans-culottes, prices and salaries were controlled, and education became compulsory. In 1794, the Jacobin government ended, and they and Robespierre were executed by guillotine.

The Directory and the Consulate (1795–1799)

Jacobin laws were canceled. A new Constitution (1795) granted executive power to a collegial government known as the Directory. The Directory was permanently unstable because it faced opposition from the aristocracy. The Directory carried out numerous military campaigns in which the general Napoleon Bonaparte rose to prominence. Using his prestige, he overthrew the Directory by a coup d’état, substituting it with a Consulate made up of three consuls.

Europe Under Napoleon (1799–1814)

This was a period of authoritarian rule. The Constitution of 1800 did not include the separation of powers or the declaration of rights. Liberties were limited, and censorship was imposed to control public opinion. Napoleon achieved peace in France by allowing the exiled nobility to return and signing the Concordat with the Pope (1801), recognizing the Catholic religion. A commercial code was established, and the Bank of France was created. Napoleon was made First Consul for Life and later became Emperor of the French. Napoleon instituted the Civil Code (1804), which included equality, liberty, and economic freedom. The state was organized into departments run by prefects, and state schools (lycées) were created to educate civil servants. Napoleon also sought a vast European empire. He began his conquest of Europe (1805) thanks to his large army and the use of new military tactics. The French troops seemed unstoppable, but the United Kingdom was an exception, defeating Napoleon in the Battle of Trafalgar (1805). Napoleon set up governments made up of family members; they all spread the ideas of the revolution. France invaded Spain (1808), and Joseph Bonaparte became king. Napoleon was exiled on the island of Elba, and the French monarchy was restored by Louis XVIII. Napoleon escaped and regained the throne for one hundred days. Napoleon abdicated and was sent into exile on the island of Saint Helena, where he died in 1821.

Legacy of the French Revolution and Napoleon

The French Revolution is one of the most significant events in history and marked the beginning of the Late Modern Period.

  • Basis of Modern Democracies: People were established as citizens with rights recognized by the state. Political clubs were classified as left or right (moderate deputies—right / radical deputies—left).
  • Economic Impact: Economic liberalization enabled the development of capitalism. A new decimal system of measurement was introduced.
  • Culture and Ideology: Revolutionaries favored a secular state without an official religion, compulsory education, and making art and culture accessible for all citizens. The first public museums were created.

The Bourbon Restoration and the Congress of Vienna

The powers that defeated Napoleon met at the Congress of Vienna with two objectives: to restore the Ancient Régime and to redraw the political map of Europe. Austrian Chancellor Metternich wanted to stop the spread of liberal ideas and restore absolutism. After reinstating absolute monarchs, the four great powers reshaped the European map. The Holy Alliance Treaty stipulated that the absolute monarchs would unite against any threat of liberal revolution. Absolutism was temporarily restored, but the Restoration could not contain the expansion of new ideas represented by liberalism and nationalism.

Liberalism

Liberalism defended individual liberty expressed by the rights of the citizens, equality before the law, and the suppression of privileges. Liberal ideology spread extensively among the bourgeoisie.

Nationalism

Nationalism was the idea that the fundamental framework for public life was the community with common traits, especially language and culture. Its objective was for each nation to have its own state. The nationalist ideology spread to territories under foreign power and for those seeking to form a unified state.

The Liberal Revolutions of the 19th Century

The spread of liberalism gave rise to a new wave of revolutions. The rise of liberalism was accompanied by an expansion of nationalism, which advocated for independent nations.

  • Revolutions of 1820: Concentrated in the Mediterranean area. Liberals in Spain, Portugal, Naples, and Piedmont rose up against absolutist regimes. Some monarchs initially accepted the constitutions, but in the end, absolutism was imposed.
  • Revolutions of 1830: Began in France with Charles X signing the Ordinances, dissolving the Chamber of Deputies and reducing the number of people who could vote. Belgium achieved independence from Holland. A revolt in Poland also occurred.
  • Revolutions of 1848: These were more extensive and radical. Barricades were set up, demanding popular sovereignty, male suffrage, and social equality. The bourgeoisie implemented a conservative liberalism. The revolutions began in France, and the Second French Republic was proclaimed. The Austrian Empire revolt forced Chancellor Metternich to resign.

Although these revolutions failed in some respects, nationalist aspirations were consolidated, many countries adopted liberalism, serfdom was abolished, and the bourgeoisie took control. These revolutions demonstrated the importance of political workers.

Nationalism and the Birth of New States

Nationalism spread across Europe in the 19th century. Nationalists defended the right of nations to exercise their sovereignty and create their own state. Members of the same national community must be grouped within given geographical borders. The majority of the Spanish colonies in America became independent. Italy was divided into several states, Austria was annexed with Lombardy-Venetia, and Germany was divided into 36 states. Prussia and Austria were competing for power.

  • Italian Unification: The process of unification was directed by the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia. Unification was carried out in several stages. The Kingdom of Italy was founded in 1861. The newly unified state established its capital in Rome.
  • German Unification: Prussia created a customs union that united the majority of Germany. Germany’s and Prussia’s kings aimed to unify Germany and exclude Austria. The process was carried out in three stages: Prussia declared war on Denmark, defeated Austria, and beat France. These three victories made the unification of Germany possible.

The New Art of the Bourgeoisie

The new bourgeois society also revolutionized artistic tastes. That art was based on new alternatives. Artists developed a desire to be original. The new artistic styles included:

Romanticism

Romanticism brought a new aesthetic and celebrated a love of freedom and the glorification of the individual. It promoted emotion over the rationalism of the Enlightenment. Romantic sculpture aspired to express movement and feelings.

Realism

Realism displaced Romanticism, focusing on the only way of understanding reality. Artists made a big effort to describe reality.

Painters: Courbet, Daumier, Millet.

Modernism (Art Nouveau)

Modernism was primarily an architectural movement, but painting and sculpture were also present. Painters decided to capture symbolic themes. The movement was decorative and inspired by forms found in nature. Women were a recurring theme.

Artists: Klimt, Mucha, or Gaudi.

Key Historical Timeline

  • American Constitution (1787)
  • Storming of the Bastille (1789)
  • Execution of Louis XVI (January 1793)
  • Defeat of Napoleon (1815, leading to exile and death in 1821)
  • Battle of Sadowa (1866)
  • Battle of Sedan (1870)