The Rise of Liberalism and the Enlightenment
Absolute Monarchy and Divine Right
In the Ancien Régime, the monarchy held a divine right, believing their power came directly from God. The monarch concentrated all three powers (legislative, judicial, and executive) and possessed absolute, arbitrary power. No laws protected the subjects of this absolutism, although the monarch often had advising institutions and executed their mandates, such as the Council of State, whose members were appointed by the king. This council was divided into different sub-councils, like the Council of War and the Council of Finance. Negotiators addressed more specific issues. Provincial governors or mayors, appointed by the monarch, applied laws and maintained order. These positions were revocable at the monarch’s will. Officials and bureaucrats executed the monarch’s orders. The monarch shared sovereignty with no one and was accountable to no one. Their power was restricted only by divine law, natural law, and the fundamental laws of each kingdom.
Parliament: A Limitation of Royal Power
Parliaments were one of the limitations of royal power. These institutions brought together representatives of the three estates. They stood in for the monarch in exceptional circumstances, endorsing laws. Absolute monarchs sought to marginalize parliaments and impede their exercise of power, resorting to them only in extreme situations, such as needing economic aid.
The Beginnings of Parliamentarism in England
Parliamentarism began in 17th-century England, ending the Stuart monarchy. The execution of Charles I, who attempted to govern without parliamentary control, led to a short-lived republic, followed by the restoration of the monarchy under Charles II. In 1679, Charles II acknowledged the writ of habeas corpus, which guaranteed the right of a detainee to appear before a judge and have legal defense. This was the first check on the arbitrary power of the king. A second revolution dethroned the Stuarts and forced Parliament to impose a declaration of rights upon William of Orange (the new king). These rights limited the monarch’s powers and subjected some decisions to Parliament. Following these changes, England became a parliamentary monarchy. Executive and legislative powers were separated. Parliament voted on laws and controlled the members of government. Citizens were guaranteed individual freedoms, and an independent judicial power was established, limiting the executive and parliamentary powers. However, only 15% of the population had the right to vote, colonists were not represented in Parliament, and slavery was still accepted.
The Enlightenment
The Enlightenment, an intellectual movement that developed in Europe during the 18th century, inspired by the ideas of U.S. independence and the French Revolution, began with the thoughts of Isaac Newton, a great introducer of the scientific method based on observation and the subsequent verification of facts. John Locke challenged the concept of absolute power and criticized the division of powers. Enlightenment thinkers openly advocated for faith in reason as the only way to understand and explain the world. These new philosophers challenged the medieval worldview. Most were deists, rejecting the superiority of any religion over others and condemning religious intolerance. Trusting in reason, they believed that nature was a source of justice and kindness and proclaimed that man was born to be happy.
Criticism of the Old Regime
Enlightenment thinkers criticized the pillars of the Ancien Régime and proposed a new model of political and social organization based on the principles of freedom and equality, thus establishing liberalism. Montesquieu advocated for the separation of powers and emphasized the importance of an independent judiciary. Rousseau defended the need for a social contract that would guarantee the basic rights of the individual and formulated the principle of national sovereignty based on voting. Enlightenment thinkers clearly opposed the estate system and advocated for equality of social origin and social mobility based on merit, worth, and intelligence. They declared that no one should inherit honor, prestige, or privileges on behalf of their ancestors. Voltaire defended freedom of conscience and asserted that human relationships should be based on tolerance. In the economic realm, the Physiocrats, led by Quesnay, emerged. They opposed mercantilism and laid the foundations of economic liberalism, arguing that the source of wealth was agriculture, not the accumulation of precious metals, and advocating for economic freedom and individual initiative. These new ideas resonated with the bourgeoisie, who had gained economic power but remained deprived of legal equality and political participation.
Enlightened Despotism
The influence of Enlightenment thinking reached the European courts. Some absolute monarchs attempted to combine royal authority with the progressive ideas of the Enlightenment. Enlightened monarchs appeared across Europe, including Maria Theresa in Austria. Common traits included centralized absolutism, the rationalization of education, the modernization of administration, the promotion of economic development, agricultural and industrial development programs, and freedom of trade. However, these experiences were limited. These monarchs could not accept economic reforms that challenged the distribution of property and the estate system, and they ultimately maintained absolute power.
Contribution of Liberalism and the Independence of the U.S.
Residents of the 13 colonies established on the coast of North America, encouraged by the arrival of European Enlightenment ideas, staged a colonial insurrection against the mother country in the 18th century. The American colonists were unhappy with a system that did not allow them representation in Parliament, forced them to pay taxes, and imposed a trade monopoly over their territory.