The Rise of Liberalism and Nationalism in 19th Century Europe: Revolutions, Unifications, and the Basque Country

Posted on Aug 15, 2024 in History

The Bourgeois Revolution and the Rise of Liberalism and Nationalism

The Bourgeois Revolution, a significant outcome of the French Revolution, saw the rise of the bourgeoisie to power. They resisted the restoration of absolutism, determined to maintain their newfound position in society. Monarchs, in an attempt to suppress liberal ideas, exiled liberal individuals from their countries. The year 1820 witnessed revolutions and uprisings across Europe, marking a turning point in the continent’s political landscape.

Liberalism: The Enlightenment’s Legacy

Liberalism, rooted in the Enlightenment, championed individual freedoms. Its core principles included:

  • Freedom of property ownership
  • Equality under the law
  • Constitutional guarantees of rights and obligations
  • Separation of political powers (legislative, executive, judicial)
  • Elected parliamentary representation through suffrage
  • Promotion of commerce and industry

Nationalism: A Force for Unity and Division

Nationalism, born during the French Revolution and amplified by Romanticism, was driven by several factors:

  • Napoleon’s invasions fostered a sense of shared identity among people.
  • Desire for independence from Napoleon’s empire and other empires fueled national aspirations.
  • Inspiration from liberal ideals further strengthened nationalist sentiments.

The Bases of Nationalism:

  • Culture: Shared customs and traditions, despite political divisions.
  • Language: A crucial factor for independence, often referred to as”Linguistic Identity” People with similar customs but different languages found it difficult to unite.
  • Religion:“Religious Identit” played a role, with divisions between Catholics and Protestants.
  • Geography:“Geographical factor” such as mountains and seas could influence national boundaries.

Imperialism: A Legacy of Diverse Empires

Dynasties had created empires encompassing numerous smaller countries. This led to various scenarios:

  • Different countries under the same monarch (e.g., Austrian Empire, Ottoman Empire).
  • One country under different monarchs (e.g., Italy).
  • Desire for native monarchs, often leading to republican movements, as people sought leaders from their own land.

The Liberal Revolutions of the 1820s and 1830s

The early 19th century witnessed a wave of liberal revolutions, some successful and others unsuccessful:

1820: Spain (Unsuccessful)

  • The Cadiz Constitution of 1812 was ignored by Ferdinand VII.
  • A military uprising led by General Riego in 1820 forced Ferdinand VII to accept the Constitution.
  • French soldiers intervened in 1823 to restore the monarchy, suppressing the revolution.

1821: Greece (Successful)

  • Uprising against the Ottoman Empire (Turkey).
  • Greek War of Independence (1821-1829).
  • Greece achieved sovereignty in 1832.

1830: France (Unsuccessful)

  • Established a Constitutional Monarchy.

1830: Belgium (Successful)

  • The Congress of Vienna had established the Kingdom of the Netherlands.
  • The southern part, predominantly Catholic and French-speaking, became Belgium.
  • The northern part, Protestant and Dutch-speaking, remained Holland.
  • A rebellion in 1830 led to Belgium’s independence in 1831.
  • Leopold I, a liberal king, ascended the throne.

1831: Poland (Unsuccessful)

  • Poland was annexed to Russia.
  • Polish troops were ordered to fight against revolutions in France and Belgium.
  • The Polish people, sympathetic to the revolutions, declared independence from Russia.
  • They were defeated, resulting in even less freedom for Poland than before.

Following these revolutions, liberal governments spread across Europe. Only Central European states remained under absolutist rule.

The Liberal Revolutions of 1848:”The Spring of Nation”

Causes

  • Effects of previous revolutions created a climate of change.
  • Bourgeoisie in absolute monarchies sought greater power.
  • Proletariat (democrats) in constitutional monarchies demanded further reforms, including universal suffrage.
  • Technological advancements, particularly the printing press, facilitated the spread of ideas and fueled discontent.
  • The rise of socialism, as articulated by Marx and Engels in the”Communist Manifesto” offered an alternative to capitalism.
  • Crop failures in 1846 led to economic crisis and widespread dissatisfaction.
  • Nationalism gained strength, further fueling unrest.

Unification, Nationalism, and Romanticism

Mazzini, a prominent figure in the Italian unification movement, embodied the spirit of nationalism and romanticism.

Romanticism (19th century), an artistic and philosophical movement, emerged alongside nationalism. Its key ideas included:

  • Emphasis on the individual.
  • Rejection of Enlightenment rationalism.
  • Importance of emotions and sentiments over reason.
  • Critique of aristocratic conventions.
  • Celebration of traditions, ancient cultures, and original languages.
  • Emphasis on ethnicity and common origins.
  • Belief in destiny and historical inevitability.

German and Italian Unification (1848-1871)

The French Revolution had established the principle of national sovereignty, where people determine their own state. However, the Congress of Vienna disregarded this principle, leading to liberal and nationalist uprisings.

Italy (1859-1871): The Risorgimento

The Congress of Vienna had divided Italy into seven states. The”Carbonar” revolt in 1820 aimed for unification.

Key Figures:

  • Mazzini, leader of”Young Italy” a nationalist movement.
  • Cavour, a skilled politician.
  • Garibaldi, a military leader.
  • Victor Emmanuel II of Savoy, the King of Italy.

Timeline of Unification:

  • 1859: War against Austria, with Mazzini and Garibaldi returning from exile.
  • 1860: Cavour conquered Tuscany, Parma, and Modena, while Garibaldi conquered the Two Sicilies and Papal States.
  • 1861: Victor Emmanuel II proclaimed King of Italy, establishing a constitutional monarchy with Rome as its capital.

Germany (1834-1871): The Deutsches Reich

The Congress of Vienna had left Germany divided into 39 states, each with its own frontiers, currency, and government. Despite these divisions, they shared a common language, culture, and history. A strong Romantic movement flourished in Germany.

Timeline of Unification:

  • 1834:“Zollverein” a financial union, was established to promote trade among the separate states.
  • 1848: Attempts were made to create a parliament for all Germans in Frankfurt.
  • Prussia emerged as more powerful than Austria.
  • Otto von Bismarck, a skilled statesman, guided the unification process.
  • 1864: Victory against Denmark.
  • 1866: Victory against Austria.
  • 1870: Victory against France.
  • 1871: The Second Reich (German Empire) was declared, with Wilhelm I of Prussia as the German Kaiser (main executive power). It was a federal state, with each region having its own local government. Berlin became the capital.

Spain After the Congress of Vienna

Ferdinand VII (1814-1833)

  • 1814: Returned from exile.
  • Abolished the Constitution of Cadiz.
  • Ruled as an absolutist monarch.
  • 1820: General Riego forced Ferdinand VII to accept the Constitution.
  • Major European powers, particularly France (with 100,000 soldiers under Saint Louis), intervened to help Ferdinand VII.
  • 1823: Ferdinand VII abolished the Constitution.
  • Repressive government until 1833.
  • Loss of American colonies (except Cuba, the Philippines, and other islands).

Isabella II (1843-1868)

  • Her mother served as regent.
  • Dynastic dispute with her uncle, Carlos V, led to the Carlist War.
  • Declared Queen at the age of 13.
  • Liberal progressives and moderates governed in turn.
  • Spain remained a largely rural country.
  • Spain transitioned into a liberal state:
    • Abolition of feudalism.
    • New system of provinces.
    • Commercial and industrial freedom.
    • Sale of administrative and church lands.
    • Compulsory education.
    • Establishment of the Guardia Civil (national police force).
  • End of her reign marked by a rebellion, forcing Isabella into exile.

Six Revolutionary Years (1868-1874)

  • Provisional government of Serrano sought a new king while drafting the democratic constitution of 1869.
  • Constitutional monarchy was established.
  • Amadeus of Savoy (1870-1873) was elected king after the assassination of Prim.
  • Challenges faced by Amadeus included unstable Spanish politics, republican conspiracies, Carlist uprisings, separatism in Cuba, and several assassination attempts.
  • Amadeus abdicated, leading to the proclamation of the First Republic.

First Republic

  • Lasted less than a year.
  • Four presidents served during this period.
  • Challenges included defining the model of the republic, another Carlist uprising, and a coup d’état by General Pavia.

Serrano Dictatorship

  • Lasted one year.
  • Coup d’état (1874) by General Martinez de la Rosa led to the Bourbon Restoration (Alfonso XII).

Nationalism and the Basque Country

The first half of the 19th century was dominated by liberal ideologies in the Basque Country, while the second half saw a shift towards conservative and Romantic ideologies.

Factors Influencing Basque Nationalism

  • Liberal victory in the Carlist Wars restored the Bourbon monarchy and centralism.
  • Compulsory education promoted Castilian as the official language.
  • Expansion of the Guardia Civil (1844) strengthened central authority.
  • Abolition of the foruak (Basque privileges) further eroded Basque autonomy.
  • Spanish nationalism, emphasizing cultural, linguistic, and religious unity, clashed with Basque identity.
  • Industrialization and its consequences:
    • Emergence of a liberal bourgeois class and their growing political influence.
    • Massive immigration from across Spain to the Basque Country and Catalonia created a plural society.
    • Transformation of rural society into an urban one.

Reaction to Change

The rapid changes brought about by industrialization and centralism sparked a reaction among the Basque people.

  • Cultural movements with nationalist aims emerged, seeking to revive local languages.
  • 1895: Foundation of JEL/PNV (Basque Nationalist Party) by Sabin Arana.
  • JEL gained support in Biscay and Gipuzkoa.
  • PSOE (Spanish Socialist Workers’ Party) gained influence in the left bank of Bilbao.
  • Carlism remained strong in Araba and Navarre.

Sabin Arana’s Ideas

Sabin Arana’s ideas were anti-capitalist, anti-industrial, anti-immigration, and anti-urban. He believed:

  • Race: Basques were a distinct historical people, separate from Spaniards.
  • Ruralism: The countryside represented the essence of a nation.
  • Religion: Basque nationalism was pro-church, while liberalism was anti-church.
  • Original independence: Biscay, and later the Basque Country, had been an independent nation protected by the foruak, which were lost during the Carlist Wars. This idea resonated with other parts of Europe seeking autonomy.

Sabin Arana later modified some of his ideas, influenced by the Catalan autonomy movement. He recognized the need for the Basque language in cities and industries and rejected the notion of a pure race.

Upon his death in 1903, the PNV split. His brother sought to revive Sabin Arana’s original ideas.

The Carlist Wars

(Bourbon monarchy and centralism restored)-Compulsory education (Castilian official language) -Extension of the power of Guardia Civil (1844)-Abolition of foruak–Spanish Nationalism (cultural, linguistic and religious unity) by Pelayo, but they feel different, so didn’t want. –Industrialisation and its consequences: -Consolidation of the liberal bourgeois class and growth of their political influence -Massive immigration (from all over Spain to Basque Country and Catalonia)=plural society-Rural Society changed to urban society Reaction:against development and changes –Cultural movements of a nationalistic sign:attemp to revive local languages1895:foundation of JEL/PNV by Sabin Arana Biscay and Gipuzkoa: JEL Bilbo left bank: PSOE Araba and Navarre: carlism Main ideas Main ideas of Sabin Arana(anti-capitalist, anti-industrial, anti-immigration, anti-urban): – –Race: basques: separated historical people, different from the spaniards –Ruralism: country represents the essence of a nation –Religion: Basque nationalism pro-church (liberalism anti-church) Original independence: Biscay (after Basque Country) had been a nation protected by the foruak that lost independence with Carlists wars (idea common in other parts of Europe). Sabin changed some ideas due to the influence of Catalan autonomy: basque language needed citied and industries, and rejected ideas of pure race. At his death (1903) division in PNV: re-proclaim of the original ideas of Sabin Arana by his brother

When Ferdinand VII died he left his throne to his 3 years old daughter Isabella II. But the problem arose when they realized that because of the Salic law (women couldn´t govern a country) Isabella II couldn’t reign. Furthermore, her uncle Carlos V wanted the throne, so they started a war.

The supporters of Isabella were the liberals who belonged to the bourgeoisie, the high clergy and the high nobility. The administration and almost all the army also supported her.

In the other side, there were the Carlists that supported Don Carlos: the peasants, part of the nobility and the middle and low clergy. The Basques supported Don Carlos, because as he was absolutist, he defended the Ancient Régime. This was convenient for the Basques, because it implied the privileged foruak to maintain, whereas the liberals wanted to abolish them.

There were 3 Carlist wars, but in the Basque Country only two were fought: the first and the third.

The first one took place between 1833 and 1839 and the winners were the liberals. It ended with the Treaty of Bergara, which said that the foruak would be maintained under the constitutional law. But the truth was that the customs were moved to the coast, the “Pase foral” disappeared and several municipal laws came from Madrid. This meant that Spain controlled the Basque Country, that it was centralized.

Another consequence was the “Ley Paccionada”. It was an agreement pact by the government in 1841. With this, Navarre ceased to be a kingdom and was turned into a province. It maintained some privileges, but the custom borders were moved to the Pyrenees and military service was made obligatory.

The third Carlist war (the second one in the Basque Country) lasted from 1873 to 1876 and in this case also the liberals were the winners. It implied the abolishment of the foral system (Canvas del Castillo wrote a law abolishing it). Because of this, the law of military exemption disappeared, and Basque men had to take part in the war if Spain was on it.

The new political and financial relationship with Madrid was representated initially by the “Kontzertu Ekonomikoak” (a system of fixed fiscal agreements to collect taxes) because the central government lacked the infrastructure to made it in another way.