The Rise of Industrial Society: Revolutions and Labor Movements
Industrial Revolution
The Industrial Revolution refers to a fundamental change in the production of goods. It was a period of profound economic transformation and social and cultural impacts.
Before the 18th century, the production of goods was done on a craft basis or through a domestic system. Usually, such activities were called “manufacturing” because they were done by hand, using very basic tools. From the mid-18th century onward, a new type of manufacturing industry began to emerge in Britain, which would soon gain widespread acceptance. Its success was based on the fact that the new system could produce more in less time and at a lower cost—in other words, more quickly and cheaply.
The characteristics of the new industrial production are mainly:
- The dominance of the machine, which replaced human-powered work.
- Increased employment in production and sources of technological innovations.
- New and highly polluting energies.
- The concentration of workers in large factories. This facilitated control by employers, as workers rarely had the opportunity to work at their own pace or set their own schedules. Instead, they received a wage paid in cash.
- The application of the division of labor, where workers must specialize to the maximum.
- The concentration of capital required for the system to function. This great need for investment was evident as industrialization stretched and profoundly affected trade and banking, which underwent a major expansion.
The change was so significant and had such an impact that it soon became known as the Industrial Revolution, and its effects were compared to those of the French Revolution. This term is used by numerous authors to define this transformation process as a whole and to emphasize the deep rupture that resulted with respect to the traditional world that preceded it.
Conclusion
We can distinguish, first, the Industrial Revolution, which began around 1780 and extended its momentum until 1840. This was the era of steam, cotton, coal mining, and railways. Second, there was the Industrial Revolution between 1885 and 1914: the age of oil, electricity, the automobile, and the chemical industry. Finally, there has been talk of a third revolution after 1945, the atomic age of electronics and information technology, the space race, and the mass media.
Labor Movement
Working conditions during the Industrial Revolution were quite deplorable, with workdays lasting more than 10 hours, payment by piece, low salaries without any benefits or healthcare, and high job insecurity. Living conditions in working-class neighborhoods could be even worse.
However, this situation improved due to social and urbanistic measures taken and the rise of the labor movement.
The demoralization and despair of many urban workers led some to emigrate, while others escaped through alcohol, prostitution, gambling, and, for the less fortunate, delinquency. Doctors were scarce, and many lived in deep poverty.
Mass entertainment was underdeveloped and was based on popular theater, cabarets, and music halls, followed by cinema. However, the tavern was undoubtedly the main entertainment center for the least powerful.
The discontent of urban workers with industrialization soon began to express itself independently. Inspired by a number of anarchist and socialist thinkers, between 1830 and 1848 in France and Britain, they tried to rebuild social harmony and community solidarity on new bases. On the other hand, a broad social and political movement emerged that sought to organize workers independently and embark on a collective project capable of improving their economic, social, and political conditions.
French Revolution
During the 1780s, the monarchy of King Louis XVI was in severe financial trouble. The cost of the state, magnified by constant wars against Britain, exceeded the income obtained through traditional taxes. The nobility and clergy were not willing to cede some of their privileges or to contribute more taxes from their properties to sustain the crown. This required increasing the taxes levied on trade and staples, to the detriment of farmers, traders, industrialists, and urban workers.
The prices of bread, salt, meat, and other commodities rose and became the subject of speculation. Privileged groups asked the king to convene the Estates-General, a traditional assembly of the three estates that had not been convened for 200 years, where they could vote on new taxes. The king had to accept their conditions.
The Restoration (1815–1848)
The French Revolution was not simply a successful resolution of ancestral problems of the French king. The Bill of Rights, freedom, equality, democracy, and national sovereignty were principles of universal validity, and therefore the success or failure of the revolution were presented as a success or a failure for humanity. The French Revolution called upon all people everywhere to fight for freedom, and therefore its international implications were evident from the beginning.
France, first a constitutional monarchy and then a republic, had been at war with its neighbors, particularly with Britain. France, as a state, posed a danger to the other European powers for some time.
The threat posed by revolutionary France was growing. Many nobles and clergy emigrated, and Louis XVI himself sought military aid from other European monarchs. Revolutionary France declared war on the Emperor of Germany in April 1792. In response, France was invaded by an army composed of Austrian, Prussian, and German princes.
Subsequently, other powers declared war on France, including Britain, Spain, Holland, Russia, and even Sweden. Subsequent anti-French coalitions were formed, leading to several wars from 1792 to 1815.
Spain was also involved, being invaded by Napoleon’s army during the War of Independence (1808–1814). France emerged victorious from almost all of these wars until 1814–1815. The reasons for the French success were the creation of a new army and the brilliant collaboration of the Directory and the educated minority.
The defeat of Napoleon in 1814–1815 led to a return to the political and social situation prior to the revolution. This period is called the Restoration and continued until 1848.