The Rise of Fascism in Italy: From Dictatorship to Totalitarianism

The Rise of Dictatorships

Democracy thrived primarily in established Western European democracies and some Central European nations. These countries demonstrated stability, unlike those affected by the economic depression, which led to reforms and challenged capitalism. The economic role of the state increased, and socialist parties gained parliamentary representation. However, the economic crisis and the rise of the Nazi party fueled fascist movements. Nationalist dictatorships were imposed in several Central European countries, with fully fascist dictatorships taking hold in Italy and Germany.

Fascist Ideology

Fascist ideology centers around a totalitarian state controlling all aspects of life, a dictatorial one-party system led by a charismatic leader with a personality cult, aggressive and militaristic nationalism, racism, and the exaltation of irrational behavior and violence. It mobilizes the masses through paramilitary organizations, emphasizing symbols and parades, and extols masculine principles.

Social Bases of Fascism

Fascism never achieved full popular support but gained significant strength from uprooted social sectors, including young, idealistic activists, the middle class fearing the spread of communism, and some working-class members disillusioned with radical left-wing parties. It also received financial backing from big businesses and landowners seeking protection against socialist and communist movements. The army and police also joined their ranks.

Fascist Italy

Post-war Italy faced severe economic and social challenges, with soaring unemployment and inflation. Worker strikes demanding reduced working hours and higher pay began, alongside peasant leagues’ protests. These strikes and land occupations frightened the middle classes, exacerbating the political crisis of the liberal parliamentary monarchy and traditional parties. The Italian Socialist Party struggled to unite the working masses due to internal divisions. Unfulfilled promises from Allied countries fueled nationalist resentment, focusing on territorial claims like Fiume.

The March to Power of Fascism

Benito Mussolini, the founder of Italian Fascism, transitioned from leading the Socialist Party to the extreme right. As a newspaper editor, he advocated for aggressive foreign policy and a tough internal stance. He founded the Italian Combat Squad, a paramilitary group with ultranationalist ideals, composed of former anarchists, trade unionists, socialists, right-wing nationalists, and ex-combatants. Though initially a minority, the movement gained support from the middle classes, employers, landowners, farmers, the army, and the police. In 1921, the Fascist movement transformed into the National Fascist Party. The Fascists violently repressed labor and peasant organizations, attacking left-wing party headquarters, unions, and cooperatives. The socialists’ call for a general strike against fascist violence backfired, benefiting Mussolini. In October 1922, the March on Rome by Fascist squads aimed to demand a government with at least six fascist ministers. The Fascists likely would have seized power without state intervention, but King Victor Emmanuel III sent a telegram inviting Mussolini to form a government.

Parliamentary Stage (1922-1925)

The liberal regime transitioned towards dictatorship. Mussolini formed a coalition government with Fascists, Liberals, and Conservatives, obtaining extraordinary powers from parliament. The assassination of socialist deputy Matteotti by fascist gangs marked a critical moment for the Fascist regime.

The Fascist Dictatorship (1925-1926)

Unopposed, Mussolini enacted laws establishing a political crimes tribunal, a secret police force, eliminating other political parties and trade unions, and implementing press censorship. Mussolini’s powers were unchecked, answering only to the king. This resulted in a totalitarian one-party regime. Mussolini’s true power resided in the Grand Fascist Council. The Lateran Pacts recognized ecclesiastical marriage, Catholicism as the state religion, and the Vatican City as a sovereign state, in exchange for the Holy See’s recognition of the Fascist state and Rome as its capital.

Indoctrination and Social Control

The regime focused on indoctrinating youth through party-controlled organizations, emphasizing military virtues like discipline and obedience. It sought total control over culture and media, encouraging women to focus on domestic roles.

Corporatism and Economic Interventionism

Labor laws, starting with the Charter of Labor, recognized fascist trade unions and outlawed strikes. Initially liberal, economic policy shifted towards interventionism from 1925 onwards, with initiatives presented as “battles.” Autarky was pursued from 1929, and the Italian Institute for Industrial Reconstruction was created. From 1936, the regime transitioned towards a war economy.