The Rise of Fascism in Italy

1. Characteristics of Fascist Movements

1.2 Fascist Movements in Italy and Germany

Fascist movements, such as those in Italy and Germany, had one characteristic that differed from other right-wing authorities: they were modern and self-identified as revolutionary. They aimed to attract the masses to build a new society that surpassed both capitalism and communism. The features that distinguished fascist movements from traditional authoritarian right-wing movements were as follows:

  • Mobilization of the Masses: They easily adapted to democratic societies to attract the masses and organize them into modern political parties that competed with socialists and communists.
  • Use of Propaganda and Demagoguery: They used propaganda and demagoguery to attract the masses. They participated in elections, outlining their programs and offering in their speeches what each person wanted to hear.
  • Charismatic Leadership: They were led by charismatic figures who were often outsiders to traditional conservative social groups. The fascists used to align themselves with patricians, capitalists, clergy, monarchs, and the military to achieve power. However, they ultimately used these alliances to achieve their own fascist goals. They tended to be indifferent to religion and political regimes.

1.3 Authoritarian Regimes and Fascist Regimes

During the World Wars, Europe experienced a wave of anti-democratic sentiment. Except for the USSR, the radical right forcibly imposed dictatorships or authoritarian regimes in two successive waves.

  • First Wave: The first wave of dictatorships occurred in the 1920s and primarily affected the countries of Eastern and Southern Europe. This stage featured the regime of Antonio de Oliveira Salazar in Portugal, the dictatorship of Primo de Rivera in Spain, and the fascist regime of Benito Mussolini in Italy.
  • Second Wave: The second wave of dictatorships occurred in the 1930s following the 1929 crisis, which provoked rising unemployment and general fear, leading to repressive social support measures. In Germany, the regime of Adolf Hitler rose to power and, through its influence, facilitated the invasion of numerous countries, spreading fascism throughout the world. Fascist movements triumphed with relative ease and little opposition. The only exception was Spain, where the Second Republic in 1936 resisted an attempted coup, which led to a civil war and the establishment of the Franco dictatorship.

2. The Rise of Fascism in Italy

2.1 The Fall of Liberal Institutions

The fall of liberal institutions in Italy occurred in 1922. The factors that led to the ascent of fascism included the desire to revise the peace agreements, the economic crisis, the fear of social revolution, and parliamentary fragmentation.

Desire to Revise the Peace Accords

Italy received few compensations after World War I. For Italian public opinion, the Treaty of Paris was humiliating, and the country had not been rewarded for its efforts. Italy’s aspirations to occupy the opposite shore of the Adriatic had been frustrated by the creation of Yugoslavia and Albania. Finally, the Italians claimed Fiume, a territory that had been occupied in 1919 by an army of Italian volunteers led by a former socialist, Benito Mussolini. Mussolini left the labor movement because it did not support Italy’s intervention in World War I. In March 1919, he founded the Fasci di Combattimento. Its program combined rabid nationalism with revolutionary syndicalism and anti-clericalism. It achieved dismal election results but attracted the attention of many veterans of the First World War.

The Economic Crisis and Fear of Social Revolution

The weak Italian economy was severely damaged after the war. Human losses were coupled with inflation, high debt from loans made during the war, the fall of agricultural production, and the difficult conversion of war industries. Capitalists wanted to preserve the gains achieved during the conflict, while the middle class lost their savings and saw their purchasing power diminish. Peasants occupied farms, and industrial unions occupied factories. However, the Italian labor movement was not strong enough to trigger a revolution. It was divided: the Communist Party split from the Socialist Party in 1921. The rise of fascism began, and its squadrons violently attacked workers and unions, particularly in the countryside. Fascist violence and anti-socialism garnered support from landlords and capitalists, who saw the fascists as protectors. The movement founded by Mussolini soon removed the revolutionary aspects of its program and began to gain deputies in elections, but it remained a minority.

Parliamentary Fragmentation

Italy’s electoral system favored the division of parliament into many political parties that had to form complicated coalitions to govern. These governments were unstable and had little room for maneuver; they were powerless against the fascists. Mussolini, not content with participating in government as a minor force, organized a demonstration called the March on Rome. Fascists occupied the main public buildings in the capital and demanded all power. He had the sympathy of much of public opinion, the army, and many liberal and conservative politicians. The king refused to grant full powers to the government to curb this movement and instead tasked Mussolini with forming a government. This unwillingness to act symbolized the weakness of Italian society against the rise of fascism.