The Rise of Fascism and Nazism in Europe
The Crisis of Democracy
The crisis of democracy originated from a double threat. On one side were right-wing conservative organizations and new far-right groups with ultranationalist, totalitarian ideologies similar to fascist movements. On the other side, Soviet communism, which had established a dictatorship in Russia since 1917, aimed to spread its revolution to other countries through the Comintern. These extremist groups were reinforced by internal difficulties caused by World War I and the Great Depression of the 1930s. In this situation, democracy survived only in countries where it was more established. Elsewhere, economic crises and instability coincided with the Nazi Party’s success, bringing Hitler to power in Germany in 1933 and giving new impetus to fascist movements. In Central, Eastern, and Balkan countries with little democratic tradition, the parliamentary system failed, and radical right-wing nationalist dictatorships were imposed between 1922 and 1939. By 1939, authoritarian political systems were the most common form of government in Europe, with dictatorships being the norm. Fully fascist dictatorships were imposed in Italy in 1922 and Germany in 1933.
Fascist Ideology
Fascist ideology featured the establishment of a totalitarian state controlling all areas of life, supporting a one-party system based on the leadership principle and personality cult of the leader. It was radically anti-communist and anti-capitalist, promoting expansionist and militaristic nationalism. Fascists were often racist, defending violence against political opponents, and extolling traditional male and female roles.
Social Bases of Fascism
Fascist parties never achieved full popular support but attracted young, romantic activists impressed by war and frustrated by the liberal system’s ineffectiveness. Members included the middle class, both urban and rural, affected by the economic crisis and fearful of communism. A working-class sector, disillusioned with left-wing parties, also joined, finding fascism’s extremism attractive. Big business and landowners provided fundamental support. The rise of fascism and Nazism cannot be explained without the support they received from institutions like the army and police, which tolerated and even collaborated with fascist violence.
Fascist Italy
Post-War Crisis
The end of World War I had severe economic and social effects on Italy, including high unemployment, labor strikes, and rural unrest. In 1919 and 1920, strikes and land occupations became widespread. The social crisis deepened the political crisis, and liberal parties lost support. The Italian Socialist Party struggled to unite the working masses due to internal divisions. Instability was compounded by frustration with the results of World War I.
Rise of Mussolini
Benito Mussolini, initially a leader of the Socialist Party’s radical wing, became an extreme nationalist. He founded the Italian Fascists of Combat in Milan, composed of various groups, including former anarchists and syndicalists. Their first violent act was destroying the offices of the socialist newspaper Avanti!, which they considered anti-nationalist. The Fascist movement gained support from the middle classes, landowners, and peasants who saw it as a force for order. Mussolini changed tactics, abandoning revolutionary tendencies and preparing for parliamentary participation. The Fascists transformed into the National Fascist Party and became increasingly violent, repressing worker and peasant organizations. A socialist general strike against fascist violence failed, favoring Mussolini.
Parliamentary Stage (1922-1925)
The years 1922-1925 were crucial in the shift from liberal regime to fascist dictatorship. Mussolini’s appointment as prime minister initially showed respect for the liberal regime. After a new electoral law, the Fascists and their supporters won 64% of the vote. In 1924, the assassination of Socialist leader Giacomo Matteotti by fascist gangs triggered a crisis. Mussolini accelerated the establishment of the dictatorship.
Fascist Dictatorship
Mussolini implemented laws known as fascistissime, creating a political crimes court and a secret police force (OVRA), eliminating other political parties and unions, and imposing press censorship. Fascism led to a one-party totalitarian regime under the National Fascist Party. The signing of the Lateran Pacts with the Catholic Church consolidated the regime. The Vatican State was officially recognized, and Catholicism became the state religion. In return, the Holy See recognized the fascist state and Rome as its capital.
Nazi Germany
Post-War Instability
In November 1918, after Emperor Wilhelm II’s abdication, the Social Democrats proclaimed a republic in Berlin, with Ebert as chancellor. The young republic faced the armistice with the Allies, left-wing insurrections, radical nationalist movements, and severe economic and political problems. After a brief period of stabilization, the Great Depression of 1929-1932 devastated German democracy and propelled the Nazis to power.
Rise of Hitler
In Munich, the German Worker’s Party, a nationalist party with illiberal and racist propaganda, was founded. Hitler joined this party, marking the beginning of National Socialism, or Nazism. It advocated a national socialism opposed to Marxist socialism, prioritizing the nation’s interests over class struggle. Its central ideas were a strong nationalist dictatorship to preserve racial purity and eliminate Germany’s enemies (democrats, Marxists, and Jews) and the unification of all Germans in a Greater Germany. Hitler became party leader in 1921. In 1923, ultranationalist groups, including Hitler’s small party, attempted a coup (the Munich Putsch). It failed, and Hitler was imprisoned, where he outlined his program.
Nazi Seizure of Power
1932 marked the peak of the political crisis. In the presidential election, only Hindenburg (seeking re-election) and Hitler had a chance of victory. Hindenburg won, but Hitler became chancellor in a coalition government with right-wing parties. The Nazi takeover was faster than in Italy. Once in government, Hitler maintained his radicalism. In the March 1933 elections, supported by right-wing parties, the Nazis gained power. The new parliament passed a law granting the chancellor full power for four years. Hitler, now a dictator, used this law to eliminate other political parties. Germany became a one-party dictatorship. After Hindenburg’s death, Hitler combined the chancellorship with the presidency of the Reich, subordinating the army and police to the Nazi Party.