The Rise and Impact of Imperialism: Causes, Forms, and Global Effects
Defining Imperialism
The term imperialism refers to an attitude, doctrine, or action that leads to the dominance of one state over another or others through the use of military, economic, or political force.
Historical Context: From Colonialism to Imperialism
The transition from colonialism to imperialism occurred in the first half of the nineteenth century. Its causes included the expansion into new markets due to technological and military development, geographical exploration, and missionary activities.
A significant event was the 1885 Berlin Conference, where European powers formally agreed upon the division of Africa.
Key Causes of Imperialism
Demographic Factors
Population growth, coupled with poor living conditions for the working class in industrialized countries, encouraged many to seek better prospects in the newly seized territories.
Economic Factors
These factors were a direct result of the expansion of industrial capitalism and were based on:
- Conquest and exploration of areas to acquire raw materials.
- Control of areas to establish markets for manufactured goods.
- The search for new territories to invest excess accumulated capital.
- The exploitation of cheap, unskilled labor.
Political Factors
States adopted policies of prestige, and powerful nations coveted hegemony, often fueled by conservative nationalism.
Scientific and Technical Factors
This included the exploration of great rivers in Africa, penetration into Asia, the development of Darwinian theories (often misapplied to justify racial superiority), and perceived technical superiority.
Ideological Factors
Nationalistic, chauvinistic, and racist theories were developed, sometimes disguised as paternalism or the ‘civilizing mission’ to ‘help the poor.’ Missionary activity was notable in these efforts. All these contributed to an ethnocentric ideology.
Chauvinism: An attitude of believing one’s country is a compendium of qualities and virtues, while despising others.
Structure of Colonial Empires
Types of Colonial Administration
Directly Administered Colonies
Territories conquered and brought directly under the control of the metropolis. The metropolis imposed its officials and institutions, organizing the administration. Example: India
Protectorates
Territories with an indigenous government that maintained responsibility for internal affairs, while foreign and military policy was controlled by the metropolis. Example: Morocco
Dominions
Territories with a majority settler population over the indigenous inhabitants, which gained significant self-government, with the metropolitan governor having limited power. Example: Canada
Metropolitan Territories
Territories seen as an extension of the metropolis. Example: Algeria (as part of France)
Concessions
Territories ceded or leased by independent states to the metropolis, coveted for strategic or commercial interests. Example: Chinese port cities
Impact and Consequences of Imperialism
Demographic Consequences
The population in some colonized areas increased due to a decrease in mortality caused by the introduction of modern medicine and sanitation. However, this often resulted in an imbalance between population and resources. Conversely, some indigenous populations suffered significant reductions due to diseases introduced by colonizers.
Economic Consequences
The economic exploitation of territories led to the creation of infrastructure primarily for exporting raw materials. The traditional self-sufficient economy was largely replaced by an export-oriented economy, making colonies dependent on the metropolis.
Social Consequences
The bourgeoisie (both European and assimilated indigenous elites) occupied senior and middle levels of society. Certain indigenous groups were assimilated and became part of the social elite. In stark contrast, the majority of the indigenous population became proletarian, increasing the abundant supply of cheap labor.
Political Consequences
The degree of dependence of the colonies was determined by the type of administrative organization imposed. This imposition was not without conflict, forming the germ of anti-imperialism, characterized by native middle classes demanding greater respect for traditions and self-determination.
Cultural Consequences
Acculturation led to a loss of identity; indigenous populations often lost aspects of their traditional culture, adopted new customs, and sometimes abandoned syncretic beliefs, adopting religions from other sites.
Geopolitical Consequences
Political maps were drastically altered by the creation of artificial borders, often forcing the union of disparate ethnic or cultural groups or dividing existing ones, leading to future conflicts.