The Rise and Fall of the Spanish Monarchy
1. The Creation of the Hispanic Monarchy
1.1 Internal Policy
The marriage of Ferdinand and Isabella in 1469 created the Hispanic Monarchy, encompassing two crowns: Castile and Aragon. Castile, with its larger population and stronger economy, held more power. The Catholic Monarchs aimed to strengthen the state, creating agencies to maintain order and asserting authority over the Church through the Spanish Inquisition. Their pursuit of religious uniformity led to the expulsion of Jews and Moors, creating a more homogeneous state.
1.2 Foreign Policy
Foreign policy had three main objectives:
- Unifying the Iberian Peninsula: This involved conquering Granada (1492), annexing disputed territories from France, and establishing ties with Portugal.
- Expansion into the Mediterranean and Atlantic: This led to the acquisition of Naples and North African territories to combat piracy and the Ottoman threat, and the conquest of Atlantic islands, culminating in the discovery of America (1492).
- Managing diplomacy with France: Spain sought to counter French influence through alliances and strategic marriages.
1.3 Formation of a Modern State
The Catholic Monarchs implemented centralizing policies, particularly in Castile. They reorganized the Royal Council, created royal secretaries, and appointed viceroys. The role of the courts was reduced, and the power of municipalities was limited. Reforms in Aragon were less extensive, but the Inquisition was brought under royal control.
2. The Major Habsburgs
The 16th and 17th centuries saw the Habsburg dynasty transform Spain into a global power.
2.1 The Universal Monarchy of Charles I
Charles I inherited a vast kingdom. His reign focused on maintaining religious unity (Catholicism) and establishing a universal monarchy. His foreign advisors faced resistance in Spain. Two major events occurred during his reign:
- The Revolt of the Comuneros (Castile): Castilian cities rebelled against Charles’s election as Emperor and the influence of foreign advisors. The revolt was defeated at Villalar (1521).
- The Germanías Revolt (Valencia and Mallorca): A social conflict between the bourgeoisie and nobility, suppressed in 1522.
These conflicts reinforced the monarchy. Charles V’s pursuit of a universal monarchy faced opposition, particularly from France. The rise of Protestantism, led by Martin Luther, further complicated matters. After the Peace of Augsburg, Charles V abdicated, dividing his possessions between his son Philip and his brother Ferdinand.
2.2 The Hispanic Monarchy of Philip II
Philip II aimed to defend Catholicism and maintain Habsburg hegemony. He ruled from Madrid. Several internal rebellions marked his reign:
- The Morisco Revolt (Alpujarras): Moriscos, despite converting to Catholicism, were suspected of retaining their customs. Their revolt (1568) was crushed in 1570.
- Alterations of Aragon: Disputes with Aragonese justices and the case of Antonio Pérez led to conflict.
- Banditry: Social and economic difficulties fueled banditry.
Philip II’s foreign policy focused on preserving his father’s legacy. Key conflicts included:
- The Dutch Revolt: Philip’s attempt to impose absolutist rule in Flanders led to an eighty-year conflict, resulting in the independence of the United Provinces.
- Conflict with England: Elizabeth I’s support for Dutch rebels and challenges to Spanish trade led to the failed Spanish Armada.
- Conflict with the Ottoman Empire: The Battle of Lepanto (1571) checked Ottoman expansion but did not eliminate the threat.
A positive development was the Iberian Union with Portugal.
2.3 Institutional Organization under the Habsburgs
The Habsburgs maintained the structure established by the Catholic Monarchs. Spanish absolutism was imperfect, as some territories retained their laws and privileges. The king relied on councils for advice. Changes included an increase in thematic councils, the emergence of the Council of State, and the diminishing importance of territorial courts. The sale of public offices became a growing problem.