The Rise and Fall of Reconstruction and America’s Path to Global Power
Reconstruction After the Civil War
I. Reconstruction
A. The South was demoralized and economically devastated after the Civil War, while the North thrived.
B. Following the 13th Amendment, the South enacted Black Codes to restrict the rights of newly freed African Americans.
C. Congress established the Freedman’s Bureau to aid freedpeople and white refugees.
D. President Andrew Johnson, a Southern Democrat, hindered Reconstruction efforts due to his Southern viewpoints.
E. Republicans aimed for a controlled and gradual Southern rebuilding, while Johnson advocated for a swift return to normalcy, promoting white supremacy.
F. Congress, led by Republicans, impeached Johnson for obstructing the “Radical” Republican Reconstruction phase. They imposed military rule on ten Southern states to enforce African American rights.
G. Republicans faced three key challenges in establishing new Southern governments:
- Insufficient tax revenue for government services.
- Difficulty overcoming prevalent Southern racism.
- Southerners manipulating elections and discriminating against freedpeople to retain power.
H. The Civil Rights Act of 1860 asserted federal civil rights over state civil rights, aiming to curb Black Codes.
I. Labor contracts (sharecropping) led to an increase in working freedmen.
J. Many freedpeople received small plots of land.
K. Freedpeople gained political participation and basic rights.
II. 13th-15th Amendments
A. 13th Amendment: Abolished slavery.
B. 14th Amendment: Granted equal rights to all U.S. citizens, regardless of race, including the right to life, liberty, and property, and the Equal Protection Clause.
C. 15th Amendment: Granted black men the right to vote (women still excluded).
III. Freedman’s Bureau
A. Established by Congress to assist freedpeople and white refugees.
B. Faced opposition from white Southerners due to its transformative impact.
C. Provided essential resources like clothing, food, water, and housing to freedpeople.
D. Enforced basic equality, effectively outlawing Black Codes.
IV. Sharecropping
A. An agreement between freedpeople and landowners, often favoring the landowners.
B. Landowners retained most of the wealth, and labor contracts were biased in their favor.
C. Provided employment for many freedpeople transitioning from slavery.
V. Ku Klux Klan
A. Emerged from the resentment towards freed slaves and the rejection of racial equality.
B. White Southerners, fueled by fear, sought to maintain white supremacy.
- Feared freedpeople’s anger and potential retaliation.
- Perceived freedpeople as lacking order and civilization.
C. Perpetrated violence against African Americans to uphold white supremacy.
D. African Americans lacked legal protection in the South, as law enforcement often colluded with the KKK.
VI. Compromise of 1877
A. Withdrew federal troops from the South, restoring Southern states’ autonomy.
B. Marked the end of the Reconstruction Era.
VII. Two Conflicting Plans
A. Republicans clashed with President Andrew Johnson.
B. Republicans championed equality during Reconstruction, while Johnson favored a pre-Civil War South.
C. Johnson sought a swift reunification, restoring the pre-war status quo.
D. Republicans advocated for a controlled and gradual Southern rebuilding under their supervision.
VIII. Black Codes
A. Laws restricting the basic rights of freedpeople in the South.
B. Imposed conditions similar to slavery on freedpeople.
C. Freedpeople faced constant fear of arbitrary arrest.
D. Black Codes severely limited freedpeople’s freedom, with violations leading to the loss of rights.
IX. Successes and Failures of Reconstruction
A. Successes:
- Abolition of slavery.
- Increased employment opportunities for freedpeople.
- Establishment of the Freedman’s Bureau.
- Enactment of the 13th-15th Amendments.
B. Failures:
- Persistent government conflict.
- Emergence of the Ku Klux Klan and racial violence.
- Implementation of Black Codes to maintain white supremacy.
- Pervasive fear among African Americans.
Turn of the Century: Immigration, Urbanization, and Industrialization
I. Immigration vs. Emigration
A. Emigration: Leaving one’s country to settle elsewhere.
B. Immigration: Arriving in another country to settle there.
II. Motivations for Immigrants
A. Push Factors:
- Wars and political instability in China and Eastern Europe.
- Religious persecution.
- Economic hardship.
B. Pull Factors:
- Abundant land and employment opportunities.
- Promise of religious freedom.
- Reuniting with family and friends.
III. Changes in Transportation
- Steam-powered trains.
- Automobiles.
- Electric subways.
- Railcars (trolleys).
- Bridges.
- Transatlantic passenger ships.
IV. Old vs. New Immigrants
A. Old Immigrants:
- From Western Europe.
- Protestant.
- Skilled and educated.
- Financially stable.
B. New Immigrants:
- From Eastern Europe.
- Catholic or Jewish.
- Unskilled and uneducated.
- Impoverished.
V. Ellis and Angel Island
A. Ellis Island: Entry point for European immigrants, with quick processing times.
B. Angel Island: Entry point for Asian immigrants, often subjected to lengthy detentions in poor conditions.
VI. Prejudice vs. Nativism
A. Prejudice: Negative thoughts and feelings towards a specific group without action.
B. Nativism: Discrimination against immigrant groups.
C. Discrimination: Taking action based on prejudice.
VII. Laws Limiting Immigration
A. The U.S. implemented restrictive quotas in 1921, based on a year with low immigration, to limit the influx of immigrants.
B. These laws were used to discriminate against certain immigrant groups.
VIII. Urbanization
A. 1920 marked the first year when more Americans resided in cities than in rural areas.
B. Immigrants flocked to cities for job opportunities.
C. Linked to advancements in technology, transportation, and industrialization.
IX. Technology Changes
- Electricity transformed daily life with Thomas Edison’s invention of the lightbulb.
- Communication revolutionized with the telegraph, enabling rapid long-distance messaging.
- Steel advancements transformed construction, enabling the rise of skyscrapers and bridges.
X. Urbanization Problems
- Increased gang violence in cities.
- Prevalence of overcrowded and unsanitary tenement buildings housing numerous immigrants.
XI. Political Machines and Bosses
A. Political Boss: Politicians who used favors and bribery for personal gain.
B. Political Machine: The system of bribery and favors, often exploiting immigrants, promising favors in exchange for votes, and engaging in corruption.
XII. “Boss” Tweed
The notorious political boss who controlled New York’s political machine.
XIII. Tammany Hall
The political organization run by “Boss” Tweed in New York, providing support to immigrants but also engaging in corruption.
XIV. Jacob Riis
A photographer who exposed the harsh living conditions of immigrants through his work, advocating for social reform.
XV. Labor Unions
A. Collective bargaining emerged as a means for workers to negotiate better wages and working conditions.
B. Socialism, advocating for public control of property and income, gained traction.
C. Knights of Labor, led by Terrence V. Powderly, united workers of all trades and races.
D. American Federation of Labor (AFL) focused on specific issues like wages, hours, and conditions, but was less inclusive than the Knights of Labor.
E. Labor unions became increasingly prevalent in the 1900s, providing a collective voice for workers.
F. Labor unions played a crucial role in securing better wages and working conditions.
XVI. Collective Bargaining
The process of negotiating as a group for improved wages and working conditions, marking the rise of labor unions.
XVII. Key Strikes
- Haymarket Square Riot: A violent clash that turned public opinion against unions.
- Homestead Strike: An attempt to assassinate a company leader led to the union being blamed and the strike ending.
- Pullman Strike: A nationwide railroad strike that required federal intervention to end.
XVIII. Transcontinental Railroad
Connected the East and West coasts of the United States, facilitating trade and transportation.
XIX. Carnegie, Rockefeller, etc.
A. Monopoly: Complete control over a product or service.
B. Andrew Carnegie: Steel tycoon who dominated the steel industry through vertical integration (controlling all stages of production).
C. John D. Rockefeller: Oil tycoon who controlled the oil industry through horizontal integration (consolidating similar businesses).
D. Big business owners like Carnegie and Rockefeller amassed immense wealth through monopolies.
E. “Robber Barons” vs. “Captains of Industry”: Debate over whether these industrialists were exploitative or beneficial to society.
F. Social Darwinism: The belief that wealth equated to fitness for survival, fueling the pursuit of wealth.
G. The government eventually intervened to regulate big businesses, starting with the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC).
XX. Economic Terms
A. Stock: Goods or merchandise available for sale.
B. Corporation: A legal entity recognized as a single person, allowing for greater business scale and investment.
XXI. Corporations’ Advantage over Small Businesses
Corporations could produce and sell goods at lower prices due to their size and access to capital, leading to the decline of small businesses.
XXII. Vertical and Horizontal Integration
A. Vertical Integration: Controlling all stages of production, from raw materials to finished product.
B. Horizontal Integration: Consolidating similar businesses to control a larger market share.
C. These strategies were key to the growth of big businesses in the late 1800s and early 1900s.
XXIII. Robber Barons vs. Captains of Industry
A. Robber Barons: Critics viewed them as exploitative and harmful to competition.
B. Captains of Industry: Supporters viewed them as drivers of economic growth, innovation, and philanthropy.
America Becomes a World Power: Imperialism at the Turn of the Century
I. Imperialism
A. Imperialism: Extending a country’s power and influence through diplomacy or military force.
B. A global race for imperial expansion among world powers.
C. Major powers like Spain, France, and England sought to expand their empires.
D. Larger countries aimed to conquer smaller nations and territories.
II. Josiah Strong
A. Believed in Anglo-Saxon predominance, the idea that the white race was superior and destined to rule the world.
B. This ideology aligned with the concept of imperialism, with stronger groups dominating weaker ones.
III. Teddy Roosevelt
A. Governor of New York who later became President of the United States.
B. Participated in the Spanish-American War as a Rough Rider, gaining a reputation as a war hero despite limited combat experience.
IV. Spanish-American War
A. Cuba sought independence from Spain.
B. The United States intervened, motivated by humanitarian concerns and a desire to expand its influence.
C. The sinking of the USS Maine in Havana Harbor sparked the war.
D. The United States was ill-prepared for the war, facing logistical challenges and relying on untrained Cuban rebels.
E. The United States also intervened in the Philippines, aiming to support their independence from Spain and expand its presence in Southeast Asia.
F. The United States decisively defeated Spain, gaining control of Cuba and the Philippines.
G. Cuba gained independence under U.S. supervision, while the Philippines remained under U.S. control, leading to conflict with Filipino rebels.
V. Intervention in Cuba
A. Cuba’s struggle for independence from Spain.
B. The United States intervened, seeking to improve its global image and forge alliances.
C. Spain underestimated the United States’ resolve, leading to war.
VI. USS Maine
A. U.S. battleship that exploded in Havana Harbor, killing 266 sailors.
B. The incident fueled public outrage and served as a catalyst for war with Spain.
VII. William Randolph Hearst
A. Newspaper publisher who used yellow journalism (sensationalized reporting) to influence public opinion and support the war effort.
VIII. Yellow Journalism
Sensationalized reporting that often exaggerated events to attract readers and shape public opinion.
IX. Annexation of Hawaii
A. The United States annexed Hawaii, transforming its government and exploiting its resources.
B. Many Americans viewed Hawaiians as inferior, justifying U.S. control.
X. Panama Canal
A. Constructed by the United States to facilitate trade between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans.
B. An example of U.S. imperialism and its expanding global reach.
XI. International Police Power
A. The United States emerged as a global power after the Spanish-American War, assuming a role as an international police force.
B. President Roosevelt advocated for this role, believing in U.S. intervention in global affairs.
XII. Invasion of Nicaragua
A. The United States intervened in Nicaragua to protect American citizens and economic interests.
XIII. Factors that Motivated Imperialism
- Desire to compete with other world powers.
- Expansion of U.S. territory and influence.
- Economic benefits of trade and resource acquisition.
- Projection of American power and prestige.
The First World War
I. President Wilson
A. Elected in 1912.
B. Initially advocated for neutrality in the escalating European conflict.
C. Successfully maintained U.S. neutrality until events forced intervention.
II. Neutrality
A. Germany’s aggressive actions in European waters heightened tensions.
B. President Wilson resisted pressure from Allied powers to join the war.
C. The United States remained neutral despite German U-boat attacks on U.S. ships.
III. Propaganda
A. Used to promote war bonds and encourage enlistment.
B. Appealed to patriotism and guilt to motivate Americans to support the war effort.
IV. Lusitania
A. British passenger ship sunk by a German U-boat in 1915, killing over 100 Americans.
B. The incident fueled anti-German sentiment and contributed to the U.S. decision to enter the war.
V. “He Kept Us Out of War”
President Wilson’s successful re-election campaign slogan in 1916, reflecting public support for neutrality.
VI. Zimmerman Telegraph
A. A secret message from Germany to Mexico, proposing an alliance against the United States.
B. Intercepted by British intelligence and shared with the United States.
C. The telegram outraged Americans and solidified support for war.
VII. Decision to Declare War
A. The sinking of the Lusitania, attacks on U.S. ships, and the Zimmerman Telegraph ultimately led to the U.S. declaration of war against Germany.
VIII. Liberty Bonds
A. Government bonds sold to raise funds for the war effort.
B. Promoted through patriotic appeals and propaganda.
IX. War Industries Board, Railroad Admin, etc.
A. Government agencies established to manage the economy and resources during wartime.
X. Freedom of Speech During Wartime
A. Anti-German sentiment led to restrictions on freedom of speech.
B. The Espionage Act and Sedition Act targeted dissent and criticism of the war effort.
XI. Unrestricted U-boat Warfare
A. Germany’s policy of attacking any ship in designated war zones, regardless of nationality.
B. Contributed to the U.S. entry into the war.
XII. Role of Women and Minorities
A. Women and minorities filled essential roles in the workforce during the war, contributing to the war effort and social change.
XIII. Role of American Government
A. The government mobilized the economy, expanded the military, and played a central role in managing the war effort.
The Interwar Years: The 1920s & 1930s (Great Depression & New Deal)
I. “New 1920s”
A. A period of cultural and economic change, marked by increased confidence and innovation.
B. The rise of flappers, the 19th Amendment granting women’s suffrage, and technological advancements like cars and radios transformed society.
C. The Harlem Renaissance fostered a flourishing of African American culture and art.
D. Credit and consumerism became increasingly prevalent.
II. “Old 1920s”
A. Traditional values and beliefs persisted alongside the cultural shifts of the “New 1920s.”
B. The Scopes Monkey Trial exemplified the clash between traditional religious views and modern scientific thought.
III. Social/Cultural Divide
The tension between the “New” and “Old” 1920s, reflecting the ongoing struggle between tradition and modernity.
IV. Ku Klux Klan
A. Experienced a resurgence in the 1920s, fueled by nativism and racism.
B. Targeted African Americans, immigrants, and those who challenged traditional values.
V. Advertisements (Analysis)
Advertisements reflected both the modernizing trends and the persistence of traditional values in the 1920s.
VI. Growth During the 1920s
A. Economic growth was significant but unevenly distributed, with rising income inequality and hidden economic vulnerabilities.
B. Overreliance on credit and speculation in the stock market contributed to the eventual economic collapse.
VII. Causes of Depression
- Overproduction in agriculture.
- Income inequality and underconsumption.
- Excessive use of credit.
- Stock market crash of 1929.
VIII. Market Simulation
Illustrates the dynamics of supply and demand, and how imbalances can lead to economic instability.
IX. Keynes vs. Laissez-Faire
A. Laissez-Faire: A hands-off approach to economic regulation.
B. Keynesian Economics: Advocated for government intervention to stimulate economic growth.
X. Life During the Depression
A. Widespread unemployment, poverty, and hardship characterized the Great Depression.
B. Bank failures and foreclosures left many Americans destitute.
XI. Dust Bowl
A severe drought that devastated the agricultural industry and exacerbated the economic crisis.
XII. Election of FDR
A. Franklin Delano Roosevelt was elected president in 1932, promising a New Deal to address the Great Depression.
XIII. Hoover vs. FDR Policy
A. Hoover’s policies were seen as ineffective in addressing the crisis.
B. FDR’s New Deal implemented government programs and reforms to stimulate the economy and provide relief to those in need.
XIV. “Do Nothing” President
Hoover’s perceived inaction during the Great Depression earned him the nickname “Do Nothing” President.
XV. First & Second New Deal
A. First New Deal: Focused on business recovery and economic stabilization.
B. Second New Deal: Emphasized social security, labor rights, and economic security for ordinary Americans.
The Second World War (Lead Up Through Victory in Japan)
I. Japanese Expansion
Japan’s aggressive expansion in Asia and the Pacific threatened U.S. interests and contributed to tensions leading up to World War II.
II. Neutrality Act of 1939
Allowed the sale of arms to belligerent nations on a cash-and-carry basis, favoring the Allies.
III. Isolationism/Isolationists
Many Americans favored neutrality and non-intervention in European affairs, advocating for a focus on domestic issues.
IV. President Roosevelt
A. Initially maintained neutrality but gradually shifted towards supporting the Allies.
B. Provided aid to Britain and prepared the United States for potential involvement in the war.
V. Lend-Lease Act
Allowed the United States to provide arms and supplies to Allied nations without requiring immediate payment.
VI. Office of War Mobilization
Coordinated government agencies involved in the war effort.
VII. American Military Growth
The United States rapidly expanded its military forces in preparation for war.
VIII. Japanese Internment
Following the attack on Pearl Harbor, Japanese Americans were unjustly incarcerated in internment camps based on unfounded fears of espionage and sabotage.
IX. Pearl Harbor
A. Japan’s surprise attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, propelled the United States into World War II.
X. American Strategy in Pacific
The United States employed a two-pronged strategy in the Pacific, engaging in island hopping campaigns and fighting on mainland Asia.
XI. Major Battles in the Pacific
- Battle of Guadalcanal
- Battle of Coral Sea
- Battle of Midway
- Iwo Jima
- Okinawa
XII. Experience Fighting in Pacific
Characterized by brutal island combat, surprise attacks, and challenging conditions.
XIII. D-Day & Defeating the Nazis
A. The D-Day invasion of Normandy marked a turning point in the war in Europe.
B. Allied forces liberated France and eventually defeated Nazi Germany.
XIV. Dropping the Atomic Bomb
A. The United States dropped atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945, leading to Japan’s surrender and the end of World War II.
B. The decision to use atomic bombs remains controversial, with ongoing debate about its necessity and justification.
XV. Peace Conferences
A. Allied leaders met in Tehran, Yalta, and Potsdam to discuss the postwar world order.
B. Tensions between the United States and the Soviet Union emerged, setting the stage for the Cold War.
C. V-E Day (Victory in Europe) and V-J Day (Victory in Japan) marked the end of World War II.