2. Stages of the Dictatorship 1. – The Military Directory (1923-1925):
The dictatorship was presented as an interim solution to restore order and resolve the ills of Spain. It was an authoritarian dictatorship whose first steps were: the suspension of the 1876 Constitution and constitutional rights, the dissolution of the Courts, and the establishment of a Military Board, chaired by Primo de Rivera, charged with governing the country. The dictator concentrated all powers (executive, judiciary, and legislature) in his hands, ruling by decree-law and advised by the rest of the military. Military personnel were placed in key administrative positions (provincial governors, government delegates in municipalities).
Trade unions and strikes were banned, and the public was controlled with an iron fist. Catalan nationalists (both autonomists and separatists) were accused of breaking the unity of Spain. The Catalan language and flag were officially banned, along with the Sardana dance. These measures further radicalized the Catalans, leading to the emergence of a new party, Estat Català, chaired by Macià. Galician and Basque nationalism were also suppressed.
In 1924, he formed the Patriotic Union (UP), his only legal political party, with a program described as regeneration and virile patriots, following a fascist model.
Abd-el-Krim’s attack on the French Protectorate in Morocco enabled a joint military action. Spanish troops landed at Alhucemas Bay (September 1925) and defeated the Rif Kabyle. Abd-el-Krim surrendered to French authorities. This victory in Morocco was a great success for Primo de Rivera and boosted his popularity. | 2. – The Civil Directory (1925-1930).
Primo sought to remain in power and institutionalize the dictatorship. In December 1926, six civilians joined the Directory. The most important were Martinez Anido (Interior), José Calvo Sotelo (Finance), and Eduardo Aunós (Labor), all from the extreme right. The UP unsuccessfully attempted to unite a broad political spectrum to legitimize the dictatorship, but it only attracted failed politicians and opportunists. In 1927, he formed the National Consultative Assembly, largely composed of UP members, elected by restricted suffrage, to advise the dictator. The Assembly failed to produce an approved draft constitution.
Highlights among the regime’s economic policy achievements were those conducted by Minister Calvo Sotelo. Taking advantage of the favorable economic climate (the roaring twenties), the dictatorship oversaw economic prosperity, consolidating capitalism in Spain. There was strong state intervention to control all productive sectors, strengthening protectionism. Companies were subsidized with public money, and public investment in infrastructure (roads, schools, waterworks) increased. Hydrographic Confederations and monopolies appeared: Tabacalera, Telefónica, Lotteries, and CAMPSA (oil distribution and sales). The main beneficiaries were large capitalists. Despite increased state borrowing and some improvement in workers’ living standards, wages remained low, and many laborers remained impoverished.
Regarding social policy, Joint Committees were established. These official bodies comprised representatives of employers and workers, and a government representative. Under fascist influence, their role was to resolve disputes. Socialist UGT, led by Largo Caballero, participated with a reformist policy (workers’ housing, improved healthcare). However, this was criticized by communists and anarchists, who were persecuted by the regime. Free Trade Unions also collaborated (alongside the far right).
The Somaten, a Catalan militia of volunteers supported by the conservative middle classes, was established to combat unions and maintain public order, eventually spreading throughout Spain. | 3. Fall of the Dictatorship:
By mid-1928, the decline of the dictatorship was evident. Several factors contributed: increasing opposition from a broad political spectrum (Republicans, anarchists, communists, nationalists, students, and intellectuals, including Unamuno, Ortega y Gasset, and Marañón). A sector of the army was discontented with Primo de Rivera’s arbitrariness. Growing state budget problems and debt, along with the failure to implement a progressive income tax due to opposition from wealthier classes, exacerbated the situation. The Seville Universal Exposition (1929), intended to boost prestige, increased debt, and coincided with the start of the 1929 crisis. The resurgence of social conflicts led to strikes, and the Socialists withdrew their support. Suffering from a serious illness, Primo de Rivera submitted his resignation to King Alfonso XIII on January 27, 1930, which was quickly accepted due to political pressure from conservatives and liberals who desired a return to parliamentarism. Primo de Rivera was exiled to Paris, where he died two months later.
Following the dictatorship’s failure, Alfonso XIII sought to restore parliamentary rule and appointed General Berenguer to head a government tasked with restoring the 1876 Constitution and saving the monarchy. Berenguer’s regime, known as a soft dictatorship, proved ineffective. In August 1930, the Pact of San Sebastian was signed by Republican opponents (socialists, radicals, and left-wing Catalan nationalists). While the CNT did not participate, it expressed support. The pact agreed to end the monarchy. Intellectuals formed the Association to Serve the Republic, led by Ortega y Gasset. In January 1931, King Alfonso XIII appointed Admiral Aznar, who called for municipal elections in April. Candidates from the Pact of San Sebastián triumphed in major cities, leading Alfonso XIII into exile. On April 14, 1931, the Second Republic was proclaimed amidst popular enthusiasm. |
|
|
